User:Graham Beards/viruses/Infections in other species
Viruses infect all cellular life and although viruses infect every animal, plant and protist species, each has their own specific range of viruses that often infect only that species.[1]
Vertebrates
The viruses that infect other vertebrates are related to those of humans and most families of viruses that cause human diseases are represented.
Companion animals such as cats, dogs, and horses, if not vaccinated, can catch serious viral infections. Canine parvovirus 2 is caused by a small DNA virus and infections are often fatal in pups.[7] The emergence of the virus in the 1970s was the most significant in the history of infectious diseases. The disease spread rapidly across the world and thousands of dogs died from the infection.[8] The virus originated in cats but a mutation allowed it to cross the species barrier and dogs, unlike cats, had no resistance to the disease.[9] The mutation changed just two amino acids in the viral capsid protein VP2 of feline panleukopenia virus.[10]
Canine distemper virus is closely-related to measles virus and is the most important viral disease of dogs. The disease (which was first described in 1760, by Edward Jenner of smallpox fame) is highly contagious, but is well controlled by vaccination. In the 1990s, thousands of African lions died from the infection, which they contracted from feral dogs and hyenas.[11]
Marine mammals are susceptible to viral infections. In 1988 and 2002, thousands of
Fish too have their viruses. They are particularly prone to infections with rhabdoviruses, which are distinct from, but related to rabies virus. At least nine types of rhabdovirus cause economically important diseases in species including salmon, pike, perch, sea bass, carp and cod. The symptoms include anaemia, bleeding, lethargy and a mortality rate that is affected by the temperature of the water. In hatcheries the diseases are often controlled increasing the temperature to 15–18°C.[15] Like all vertebrates, fish suffer from herpes viruses. These ancient viruses have co-evolved with their hosts and are highly species-specific.[16] In fish, they cause cancerous tumours and non-cancerous growths called hyperplasia.[17]
Invertebrates
The health of the honey bee has been important to human societies for centuries.
Baculoviruses are among the best studied of the invertebrate viruses. They infect and kill several species of agricultural pests, [25] and as natural insecticides, they have been used to control insect populations in Brazil and Paraguay such as the velvet bean caterpillar (Anticarsia gemmatalis), a pest of soy beans.[26] Viruses are an attractive alternative to chemical pesticides because they are safe to other wildlife and leave no residues.[27]
Viruses can also change the behaviour of their insect hosts to their own advantage. A baculovirus of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) makes their caterpillars climb to the tops of trees where they die. In doing so, they release a shower of millions of progeny viruses that go on to infect more caterpillars.[28]
Invertebrates do not produce antibodies by the lymphocyte-based adaptive immune system that is central to vertebrate immunity, but they are capable of effective immune responses.[29] Phagocytosis was first observed in invertebrates,[30] and this and other innate immune responses are important in immunity to viruses and other pathogens. The hemolymph of invertebrates contains many soluble defence molecules, such as hemocyanins, lectins, and proteins, which protect these animals against invaders.[31]
Plants
There are many types of
Plants have elaborate and effective defence mechanisms against viruses. One of the most effective is the presence of so-called resistance (R) genes. Each R gene confers resistance to a particular virus by triggering localised areas of cell death around the infected cell, which can often be seen with the unaided eye as large spots. This stops the infection from spreading.[35] RNA interference is also an effective defence in plants.[36] When they are infected, plants often produce natural disinfectants that kill viruses, such as salicylic acid, nitric oxide, and reactive oxygen molecules.[37] Plant virus particles or virus-like particles (VLPs) have applications in both biotechnology and nanotechnology. The capsids of most plant viruses are simple and robust structures and can be produced in large quantities either by the infection of plants or by expression in a variety of heterologous systems. Plant virus particles can be modified genetically and chemically to encapsulate foreign material and can be incorporated into supramolecular structures for use in biotechnology.[38] The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses now recognises over 900 plant viruses.[39]
Bacteria
Bacteriophages are a common and diverse group of viruses and are the most abundant form of biological entity in aquatic environments – there are up to ten times more of these viruses in the oceans than there are bacteria,
The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes that destroy foreign DNA. These enzymes, called
Archaea
Some viruses replicate within
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