User:Jimmyjohnslaser/sandbox

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]


The italicized portions are the portions I have added.


In biology, a transporter is a

ATP synthesis [9]
.

This page is focused mainly on transporters acting as pumps, but transporters can also function to move molecules through

passive diffusion
), to diffuse down their concentration gradient through these protein transporters.

Ion transporters are essential for proper cell function and thus they are studying by researchers using a variety of methods. These methods will be mentioned as well in this article.

Types of Transporters

Primary transport[edit]

Active Transporter[edit]

ATP Producing Transporter [edit]

ATP producing transporters run in the opposite direction of ATP Utilizing transporters. These proteins transport ions from high to low concentration with the gradient but in the process ATP is formed. Potential energy in the form of the concentration gradient is used to generate ATP. In animals, this ATP synthesis takes place in the mitochondria using F- type ATPase otherwise known as ATP synthase. This process utilizes the electron transport chain in a process called oxidative phosphorylation.[1] V-type ATPase serves the opposite function as F-type ATPase and is used in plants to hydrolyze ATP to create a proton gradient. Examples of this are lysosomes that use V-type ATPase acidify vesicles or plant vacuoles during process of photosynthesis in the chloroplasts. This process can be regulated through various methods such as pH.

Secondary transport[edit]

Secondary transporters also transport ions against the concentration gradient – from low concentration to high concentration - but unlike primary transporters which use ATP to create a concentration gradient, secondary transporters use the potential energy from the concentration gradient created by the primary transporters to transport ions. For example, the

Antiporters
also use the concentration gradient but the coupled molecule is transported in the opposite direction.

Techniques for studying Ion Transporters

Patch Clamp

A patch clamp is an electrophysiology technique used to study channels and transporters in cells.

Planar Lipid Bilayer Experiments[edit]

These experiments are a type of voltage clamp used to study ion channels' in artificial membranes using electrophysiology.[11] The channels are inserted into the artificial membrane with a micellar solution or with liposomes.[11] These channels can then be tested in different environments.[12] These experiments can help explain differences in transporter function in different environments due to membrane pressure.

FRAP

Fluorescence after photobleaching (FRAP) is a technique used to track diffusion of lipids or proteins in a membrane. This technique is used to better understand where certain transporters are in the cell and their mobility in the cell.

FRET-

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a technique that uses fluorescence to track how close two proteins are to each other. This has been used in studying transporters to see how they interact with other cellular proteins.

X-ray Crystallography

X-ray crystallography is an incredible tool that allows the structure of proteins to be seen, though it is only a snapshot of one protein conformation. The structure of transport proteins allows researchers to further understand how and what the transporter does. [13][14]

  1. ^
    ISSN 1369-8486
    .
  2. PMID 23035940
    .
  3. ISSN 1471-0080. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help
    )
  4. PMID 19339978. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help
    )
  5. PMID 19806033. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help
    )
  6. PMID 27098917. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help
    )
  7. PMID 26784222.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link
    )
  8. ^ Purves, Dale; Augustine, George J.; Fitzpatrick, David; Katz, Lawrence C.; LaMantia, Anthony-Samuel; McNamara, James O.; Williams, S. Mark (2001). "Channels and Transporters". Neuroscience. 2nd edition.
  9. ^ Gadsby, David (May 2009). "Ion channels versus ion pumps: the principal difference, in principle". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 10: 344–352. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |title= at position 31 (help)
  10. ^ Crane, Robert K.; Miller, D.; Bihler, I. (1961). "The restrictions on possible mechanisms of intestinal transport of sugars". Membrane Transport and Metabolism: 439–449.
  11. ^
    PMID 23529424
    , retrieved 2020-11-16
  12. PMID 28076803
    .
  13. ISSN 0028-0836. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help
    )
  14. ISSN 0028-0836. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help
    )
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