User:Joopercoopers/Origins and architecture of the Taj Mahal

The Tomb of Jahangir at Shahdara (Lahore), begun in 1628 CE (1037 AH), only 4 years before the construction of the Taj and again without a dome, takes the form of a simple plinth with a minaret at each corner.^[2]

Paradise gardens

The concept of the

For the tomb of Jahan's late wife though, where the mausoleum is sited at the edge of the garden, a variant of the charbagh is suggested by Ebba Koch; that of the waterfront garden. Developed by the Mughuls for the specific conditions of the Indian plains where slow flowing rivers provide the water source, the water is raised from the river by animal driven devices known as purs and stored in cisterns. A linear terrace is set close to the riverbank with low-level rooms set below the main building opening on to the river. Both ends of the terrace were emphasised with towers. This form was brought to Agra by Babur and by the time of Shah Jahan, gardens of this type as well as the more traditional charbagh lined both sides of the Jumna river. The riverside terrace was designed to enhance the views of Agra for the imperial elite who would travel in and around the city by river. Other scholars suggest another explanation for the eccentric siting of the mausoleum at the Taj Mahal complex. If the Midnight Garden to the north of the river Jumna is considered an integral part of the complex, then the mausoleum can be interpreted as being in the centre of a garden divided by a real river and thus is more in the tradition of the pure charbagh.^[6][7]

Mausolea

The favourite form for both Mughal garden pavilions and mausolea (seen as a funerary form of pavilion) was the

Minarets did not become a common feature of Mughal architecture until the 17th century, particularly under the patronage of Shah Jahan. A few precedents exist in the 20 years before the construction of the Taj in the

Hierarchical ordering of architecture is used by most cultures to emphasise particular elements of a design and to create drama. In the Taj Mahal, the hierarchical use of red sandstone and white marble contributes manifold symbollic significance. The Mughals were elaborating on a concept which traced its roots to earlier Hindu practices, set out in the Vishnudharmottara Purana, which recommended white stone for buildings for the Brahmins (priestly caste) and red stone for members of the Kshatriyas (warrior caste). By building structures that employed such colour coding, the Mughals identified themselves with the two leading classes of Indian social structure and thus defined themselves as rulers in Indian terms. Red sandstone also had significance in the Persian origins of the Mughal empire where red was the exclusive colour of imperial tents. In the Taj Mahal the relative importance of each building in the complex is denoted by the amount of white marble (or sometimes white polished plaster) that is used.^[12][15]

The use of naturalist ornament demonstrates a similar hierarchy. Wholly absent from the Jilaukhana and caravanserai areas, it is used with increasing frequency as the processionary path approaches the mausoleum. Its symbolism is multifaceted, on the one hand evoking a more perfect, stylised and permanent garden of paradise than could be found growing in the earthly garden; on the other, an instrument of propaganda for Jahan's chroniclers who portrayed him as an 'erect cypress of the garden of the caliphate' and frequently used plant metaphors to praise his good governance, person, family and court. Plant metaphors also find a commonality with Hindu traditions where such symbols as the 'vase of plenty' (Kalasha) can be found and were borrowed by the mughal architects.^[16]

Sound was also used to express ideas of paradise. The interior of the mausoleum has a

The popular view of the Taj as one of the world's monuments to a great "love story" is born out by the contemporary accounts and most scholars accept this has a strong basis in fact.[18]^[19] The building was also used to assert Jahani propaganda concerning the 'perfection' of the Mughal leadership. The extent to which the Taj uses propaganda is the subject of some debate amongst contemporary scholars. Wayne Begley put forward an interpretation in 1979 that exploits the Islamic idea that the 'Garden of paradise' is also the location of the 'throne of god' on the day of judgement. In his reading the Taj Mahal is seen as a monument where Shah Jahan has appropriated the authority of the 'throne of god' symbolism for the glorification of his own reign.^[20] Koch disagrees, finding this an overly elaborate explanation and pointing out that the 'Throne' sura from the Qu'ran (sura2 verse 255) is missing from the calligraphic inscriptions.^[21]

This period of Mughal architecture best exemplifies the maturity of a style that had synthesised Islamic architecture with its indigenous counterparts. By the time the Mughals built the Taj, though proud of their Persian and Timurid roots, they had come to see themselves as Indian. Copplestone writes "Although it is certainly a native Indian production, its architectural success rests on its fundamentally Persian sense of intelligible and undisturbed proportions, applied to clean, uncomplicated surfaces."^[3]

Architects and craftsmen

History obscures precisely who designed the Taj Mahal. In the Islamic world at the time, the credit for a building's design was usually given to its patron rather than its architects. From the evidence of contemporary sources, it is clear that a team of architects were responsible for the design and supervision of the works, but they are mentioned infrequently. Shah Jahan's court histories emphasise his personal involvement in the construction and it is true that, more than any other Mughal emperor, he showed the greatest interest in building, holding daily meetings with his architects and supervisors. The court chronicler Lahouri, writes that Jahan would make "appropriate alterations to whatever the skilful architects designed after many thoughts, and asked competent questions."

Similarly, the individual craftsmen are not named by the historical sources, but they were experts in their fields and were drawn from all over India. European chroniclers give unsubstantiated figures of as many as 20,000 men may have worked on the construction. Stonecutters and masons left their marks of various designs, including predominantly Hindu names with some Muslim, indicating the work force was drawn across religious creeds.[26] The exquisite and highly skilled parchin kari work was developed by Mughal lapidarists from techniques taught to them by Italian craftsmen employed at court. The look of European herbals, books illustrating botanical species, was adapted and refined in Mughal parchin kari work.^[27]

Site

16th–17th Century Agra

In the following century, a thriving riverfront garden city developed on both sides of the Yamuna. Subsequent Mughal emperors developed both sides of the river including the rebuiding of Agra Fort, by Akbar, completed in 1573. By the time Jahan ascended to the throne, Agra's population had grown to approximately 700,000 and was, as Abdul Aziz writes, "a wonder of the age - as much a centre of the arteries of trade both by land and water as a meeting-place of saints, sages and scholars from all Asia.....a veritable lodestar for artistic workmanship, literary talent and spiritual worth".^[30][31]

Agra became a city centred on its waterfront and developed partly eastwards but mostly westwards from the rich estates that lined the banks. The prime sites remained those that had access to the river and the Taj Mahal was built in this context, but uniquely, on both sides of the river.

Clickable map

Click map to navigate

The Taj Mahal complex can be conveniently divided into 5 sections. 1. The riverfront terrace, containing the Mausoleum, Mosque and Jawab 2. the Charbagh garden containing pavilions. 3. the jilaukhana containing accommodation for the tomb attendants and two subsidiary tombs 4. The Taj Ganji, originally a bazaar and caravansarai only traces of which are still preserved, and finally, to the north of the river Yamuna, 5. the 'moonlight garden'. The great gate lies between the Jilaukhana and the garden. Levels gradually decend in steps from the Taj Ganji towards the river. Contemporary descriptions of the complex list the elements in order from the river terrace towards the Taj Ganji.^[32]

Dimensional organisation

That the Taj comlex is ordered by grids is self evident from examination of any plan. However, it was not until 1989 that Begley and Desai attempted the first detailed scholastic examination of how the various elements of the Taj might fit into a coordinating grid. Numerous 17th century accounts detail the precise measurements of the complex in terms of the

More recent research and measurement by Koch and Richard André Barraud suggests a more complex method of ordering that relates better to the 17th century records. Whereas Begley and Desai had used a simple fixed grid on which the buildings are superimposed, Koch and Barraud found the layout's proportions were better explained by the use of a generated grid system in which specific lengths may be divided in a number of ways such as halving, dividing by three or using decimal systems. They suggest the 374 gaz width of the complex given by the contemporary historians was correct and the Taj is planned as a tripartite rectangle of three 374 gaz squares. Different modular divisions are then used to proportion the rest of the complex. A 17 gaz module is used in the jilaukhana, bazaar and caravanserais areas whereas a more detailed 23 gaz module is used in the garden and terrace areas (since their width is 368 gaz, a multiple of 23). The buildings were in turn proportioned using yet smaller grids superimposed on the larger organisational ones. The smaller grids were also used to establish elevational proportion throughout the complex.[33]

Such apparently peculiar numbers make more sense when seen as part of Mughal geometric understanding. Octagons and triangles, which feature extensively in the Taj, have particular properties in terms of the relationships of their sides. A right handed triangle with two sides of 12 will have a hypotenuse of 17, similarly if it has two sides of 17 it's hypotenuse will be 24. An octagon with a width of 17 will have sides of exactly 7, which is the basic grid upon which the mausoleum, mosque and Mihman Khana are planned.^[33]

Descrepancies remain in Koch and Barraud's work which they attribute to some figures being rounded fractions, innacuracies of reporting from third persons and errors in workmanship (most notable in the caravanserais areas further from the tomb itself).^[33]

Mausoleum (Rauza-i munauwara)

The focus and climax of the Taj Mahal complex is the symmetrical white marble tomb; a cubic building with chamfered corners, with arched recesses known as

Base

Elevations;

Dome

Interior

The hierarchical ordering of the entire complex reaches its crescendo in the main chamber housing the

Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves, so the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan are laid in a relatively plain chamber beneath the inner chamber of the Taj. They are buried on a north-south access, with faces turned right (west) toward Mecca. The Taj has been raised over their cenotaphs (from Greek keno taphas, empty tomb). The cenotaphs mirror precisely the placement of the two graves, and are exact duplicates of the grave stones in the basement below. Mumtaz's cenotaph is placed at the precise center of the inner chamber. On a rectangular marble base about 1.5 by 2.5 m is a smaller marble casket. Both base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet.^[citation needed]

Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side. It is the only asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: A larger casket on slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy which identifies Shah Jahan. On the lid of this casket is a sculpture of a a small pen box. (The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating men's and women's caskets respectively.)^{[citation needed]}

An octagonal marble screen or jali borders the cenotaphs and is made from eight marble panels. Each panel has been carved through with intricate piercework. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid with semiprecious stones in extremely delicate detail, forming twining vines, fruits and flowers.

The actual graves are a level below.

Riverfront terrace (Chameli Farsh)

Plinth and terrace

• Tahkhana
• Towers

Minarets

At the corners of the plinth stand minarets — four large towers each more than 40 meters tall. The towers are designed as working minarets, a traditional element of mosques, a place for a muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. Each of the minarets was constructed slightly out of plumb to the outside of the plinth, so that in the event of collapse (a typical occurrence with many such tall constructions of the period) the material would tend to fall away from the tomb.^{[citation needed]}

Jawab and Mosque

The mausoleum is flanked by two almost identical buildings on either side of the platform. To the west is the Mosque, to the east is Jawab. The Jawab, meaning 'answer' balances the bilateral symmetry of the composition and was originally used as a place for entertaining and accommodation for important visitors. It differs from the mosque in that it lacks a mihrab, a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca, and the floors have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was laid out with the outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble.

The mosque's basic

The large

The layout of the garden, and its architectural features such as its fountains,

crenellations. Built of sandstone, they are given a tripartite form and over two storeys and are capped with a white marble chhatris supported from 8 columns.^[40]

The original planting of the garden is one of the Taj Mahal's remaining mysteries. The contemporary accounts mostly deal just with the architecture and only mention 'various kinds of fruit-bearing trees and rare aromatic herbs' in relation to the garden. Cypress trees are almost certainly to have been planted being popular similes in Persian poetry for the slender elegant stature of the beloved, and also symbolising death. Fruit trees conversely symbolised life and at the end of the 18th century, Thomas Twining noted orange trees. A large plan of the complex suggests beds of various other fruits such as pineapples, pomegranates, bananas, limes and apples. As the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the garden declined as well. The British, at the end of the 19th century thinned out a lot of the increasingly forested trees, replanted the cypresses and laid the gardens to lawns in their own taste.^[41]

Great gate (Darwaza-i rauza)

The great gate stands at the north of entrance forecourt (Jilaukhana) and provides a transition between the worldly realm of bazaars and caravanserai and the spiritual realm of the paradise garden, mosque and the mausoleum. Its rectangular plan is a variation of the 9-part hasht bihisht plan found in the mausoleum. The corners are articulated with octagonal towers giving the structure a defensive appearance. External domes were reserved for tombs and mosques of the time and so the large central space does not receive any outward expression of its internal dome. From the space the Mausoleum is framed along its major axis by the pointed arch of the portal. Inscriptions from the Qu'ran are inlaid around the two northern and southern pishtaqs, the southern one 'Daybreak' invites believers to enter the garden of paradise.^[42]

Southern galleries (Iwan Dar Iwan)

Running the length of the northern side of the southern garden wall to the east and west of the great gate are galleried arcades. A raised platform with geometric paving provides their base and between the columns are cusped arches typical of the Mughul architecture of the period. The galleries were used during the rainy season to admit the poor and distribute alms. The galleries terminate at each end with a transversely placed room with tripartite divisions.^[42]

Forecourt (Jilaukhana)

The Jilaukhana (literally meaning 'in front of house') was a courtyard feature introduced to mughal architecture by Shah Jahan. It provided an area where visitors would dismount from their horses or elephants and assemble in style before entering the main tomb complex. The rectangular area divides north-south and east-west with an entry to the tomb complex through the main gate to the north and entrance gates leading to the outside provided in the eastern, western and southern walls. The southern gate leads to the Taj Ganji quarter.^[43]

Bazaar streets

Two identical streets lead from the east and west gates to the centre of the courtyard. They are lined by

Lord Curzon restored 1900 and 1908.^[44]

Inner subsidiary tombs (Saheli Burj)

Two mirror image tombs are located at the southern corners of the Jilaukhana. They are conceived as miniature replicas of the main complex and stand on raised platforms accessed by steps. Each octagonal tomb is constructed on a rectangular platform flanked by smaller rectangular buildings in front of which is laid a charbargh garden. Some uncertainty exists as to whom the tombs might memorialise. Their descriptions are absent from the contemporary accounts[j] either because they were unbuilt or because they were ignored, being the tombs of women. On the first written document to mention them, the plan drawn up by Thomas and William Daniel in 1789, the eastern tomb is marked as that belonging to Akbarabadi Mahal and the western as Fatehpuri Mahal.^[45][46]

Northern courtyards (Khawasspuras)

A pair of courtyards at the northern corners of the Jilaukhana provided quarters (Khawasspuras) for the tombs attendants and the

nursery for the garden and the western courtyard was used as a cattle stable until 2003.^[43]

Bazaar and caravanserai (Taj Ganji)

The Bazaar and caravanserai were constructed as an integral part of the complex, initially to provide the construction workers with accommodation and facilities for their wellbeing, and later as a place for trade, the revenue of which supplemented the expenses of the complex. The area became a small town in its own right during and after the building of the Taj. Originally known as 'Mumtazabad', today it is called Taj Ganji or 'Taj Market'. Its plan took the characteristic form of a square divided by two cross axial streets with gates to the four cardinal points. Bazaars lined each street and the resultant squares to each corner housed the caravanserais in open courtyards accessed from internal gates from where the streets intersected (Chauk). Contemporary sources pay more attention to the north eastern and western parts of the Taj Ganji (Taj Market) and it is likely that only this half received imperial funding. Thus, the quality of the architecture was finer than the southern half.^[47]

The distinction between how the sacred part of the complex and the secular was regarded is most acute in this part of the complex.^[47] Whilst the rest of the complex only received maintenance after its construction, the Taj Ganji became a bustling town and the centre of Agra's economic activity where "different kinds of merchandise from every land, varieties of goods from every country, all sorts of luxuries aof the time, and various kinds of necessitities of civilisation and comfortable living brought from all parts of the world" were sold.^[48] An idea of what sort of goods might have been traded is found in the names for the caravanserais; the north western one was known as Katra Omar Khan (Market of Omar Khan), the north eastern as Katra Fulel (Perfume Market), the south western as Katra Resham (Silk Market) and the south-eastern as Katra Jogidas. It has been constantly redeveloped ever since its construction, to the extent that by the 19th century it had become unrecognisable as part of the Taj Mahal and no longer featured on contemporary plans and its architecture was largely obliterated. Today, the contrast is stark between the Taj Mahal's elegant, formal geometric layout and the narrow streets with organic, random and un-unified constructions found in the Taj Ganji. Only fragments of the original constructions remain, most notably the gates.^[47]

Tombs outside the walls

• write it up

Waterworks

Water for the Taj complex was provided through a complex infrastructure. It was drawn from the river by a series of purs - an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism.^[49] The water flowed along an arched aqueduct into a large storage tank, where, by thirteen additional purs, it was raised to large distribution cistern above the Taj ground level located to the west of the complex's wall. From here water passed into three subsidiary tanks and was then piped to the complex. The head of pressure generated by the height of the tanks (9.5m) was sufficient to supply the fountains and irrigate the gardens. A 0.25 m diameter earthenware pipe lies 1.8 m below the surface,^[37] in line with the main walkway which filled the main pools of the complex. Some of the earthenware pipes were replaced in 1903 with cast iron. The fountain pipes were not connected directly to the fountain heads, instead a copper pot was provided under each fountain head: water filled the pots ensuring an equal pressure to each fountain. The purs no longer remain, but the other parts of the infrastructure have survived with the arches of the aqueduct now used to accommodate offices for the Archaeological Survey of India's Horticultural Department.^[50]

Moonlight garden (Mahtab Bagh)

To the north of the Taj Mahal complex, across the river is another Charbagh garden. It was designed as an integral part of the complex in the riverfront terrace pattern seen elsewhere in Agra. Its width is identical to that of the rest of the Taj. The garden historian Elizabeth Moynihan suggests the large octagonal pool in the centre of the terrace would reflect the image of the Mausoleum and thus the garden would provide a setting to view the Taj Mahal. The garden has been beset by flooding from the river since Mughal times. As a result, the condition of the remaining structures is quite ruinous. Four sandstone towers marked the corners of the garden, only the south-eastward one remains. The foundations of two structures remain immediately north and south of the large pool which were probably garden pavilions. From the northern structure a stepped waterfall would have fed the pool. The garden to the north has the typical square, cross-axial plan with a square pool in its centre. To the west an aqueduct fed the garden.^[51][52]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Taj Mahal.

• Persian architecture
• Humayun's Tomb
• Agra Fort
• Fatehpur Sikri
• Bibi Ka Maqbara
• Turkish architecture

Notes

a. ^{^} The UNESCO evaluation omits the Taj Ganji and Moonlight garden from its area calculations - the total area with the historic Taj Ganji is 26.95 ha
b.

Deccan (1617 and 1621 CE, 1026 and 1030 AH), Kangra

(1618 CE, 1027AH).
c. ^{^} In the Mughal empire, inheritance of power and wealth was not determined through primogeniture, but rather by princely sons competing to achieve military success and consolidate power at court.
d.

Raja Bhagwant Das.^[24]

e.

Gregorian Calendar

.
f. ^{^} In 1637–39 CE (1047–1049 AH), an Indian servant of the Dutch East India company could expect to receive 36 rupees a year, a mansabdar would receive 9000 rupees a year.
g. ^{^} "May the abode of Mumtaz Mahal be paradise".^[53]
h. ^{^} There is some disagreement as to whether the translation of darogha imarat is 'Superintendent of Buildings' as Begley and Koch contend or 'Chief architect' as Qaisar contends.^[25]
j. ^{^} 1643 (1053 AH) by Lahouri.^[45]

Citations

1. ^
   ICOMOS
   . 1983. Retrieved 2007-03-21.
2. ^ ^{a b} Koch, p.85-88
3. ^ ^{a b} Copplestone, p.166
4. ^ "Char Bagh Gardens Taj Mahal". About Taj Mahal. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
5. ^ Koch, p.24
6. ^ Leoshko, Janice (2002). "Book Review: The Moonlight Garden: New Discoveries at the Taj Mahal". Persimmon - Asian literature, Arts and Culture. Retrieved 2007-02-13.
7. ^ Harkness, p.63
8. ^ Koch, p.26
9. ^ Asher p.130-133
10. ^ Koch, p.180
11. ^ Asher, p.250
12. ^ ^{a b c} Koch, p.216-217
13. ^ Asher, p.214
14. ^ Koch, p.104
15. ^ ^{a b} IJAR, vol. 1- Issue 1: The Notion of Hierarchy: The 'Parchin Kari' Programme at the Taj Mahal
16. ^ Koch, p.218-224
17. ^ Koch, p.228
18. ^ Lahauri, p.384-9
19. ^ Kambo, p.275
20. ^ Begley (1979) p.7-37
21. ^ Koch, p.225
22. ^ Koch, p.89
23. ^ Begley and Desai (1989), p.65
24. ^ ^{a b c} Asher, p.212
25. ^ ^{a b} Dunkeld, Malcolm (Ed) (June 2007). "Construction history society newsletter" (PDF). Chartered Institute of Building. Retrieved 2007-07-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
26. ^ Koch, p.90-92
27. ^ Koch, p.91
28. ^ Koch (1997), p.143
29. ^ Petruccioli (2006), p.358-359
30. ^ Aziz, p.129
31. ^ Koch, p,23
32. ^ Koch, p.112
33. ^ ^{a b c d} Koch, p.108-109
34. ^ Begley (1989), p.64-76
35. ^ Koch, p.152-179
36. ^ Mughal Garden of the Taj Mahal in Agra
37. ^ ^{a b} Koch, p.137
38. doi:10.1080/00043079.1979.10787632
    .
39. ^ Allan, John. The Cambridge Shorter History of India. Cambridge: S. Chand. pp. 288 pages. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |format edition= ignored (help), p.318
40. ^ Koch, p.138
41. ^ Koch, p.139
42. ^ ^{a b} Koch, p.126-134
43. ^ ^{a b} Koch, p.114-120.
44. ^ Koch, p.116
45. ^ ^{a b} Koch, p.120
46. ^ Buyers, Christopher (November 2006). "India, The Timurid Dynasty, Genealogy". Retrieved 2007-07-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
47. ^ ^{a b c} Koch, p.201-208
48. ^ Koch, p.201 quoting Lahauri and Kambo
49. ^ "Taj Mahal - A symbol of love". Advent InfoSoft Pvt. Ltd. Retrieved 2007-03-08.
50. ^ Koch, p.208
51. ^ Koch, p.56
52. ^ Leoshko, Janice (2002). "Book review - The Moonlight Garden: New Discoveries at the Taj Mahal". Persimmon - Asian Literature, Arts and Culture. p. 1. Retrieved 2007-03-02.
53. ^ Koch, p.20

References

Asher, Catherine Ella Blanshard. The New Cambridge History of India, Vol I:4 - Architecture of Mughal India (First published 1992, reprinted 2001,2003 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 368. ISBN 0-521-26728-5. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help ) Aziz, Abdul (1928). "History of the Reign of Shah Jahan". Journal of Indian History. 6: 127–47. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |lay-source= and |lay-date= (help) Begley, Wayne (March 1979). "The myth of the Taj-Mahal and a new theory of its symbolic meaning". Art Bulletin. 61: 7–37. doi:10.1080/00043079.1979.10787632. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |lay-source= and |lay-date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link ) Begley, Wayne E. (1989) [1989]. Taj Mahal - The Illumined Tomb. University of Washington Press. p. 392. ISBN 978-0295969442. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help ) Begley, Wayne E. (1983). "Four Mughal Caravanserais Built during the Reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan" (pdf). Muqarnas Volume I: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Yale University Press (Newhaven). pp. 167–180. Retrieved 2007-07-24. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Bernier, François. Travels in the Moghul Empire A.D. 1657-1668. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co. Chaghtai, Muhammad Abdullah. Le Tadj Mahal d'Agra (Inde). Histoire et description (in French). Brussels: Editions de la Connaissance. [1]. Copplestone, Trewin. (ed). World architecture - An illustrated history. London: Hamlyn. ASIN B0000CNOL6. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help ) Harkness, Terence (July 1, 2004). "Places / Projects -- Taj Heritage Corridor: Intersections between History and Culture on the Yamuna Riverfront" (pdf). Vol. 16: No. 2. Places. pp. 62–69. Retrieved 2007-02-13. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Kambo, Muhammad Salih. Yazdani, Ghulam (ed.). Amal-i-Salih or Shah Jahan Namah. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press. Koch, Ebba (2006) [Aug 2006]. The Complete Taj Mahal: And the Riverfront Gardens of Agra (First ed.). Thames & Hudson Ltd. pp. 288 pages. ISBN 0500342091. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help ) Lahauri, Abd al-Hamid. Maulawis Kabir al-Din Ahmad and 'Abd al-Rahim under the superintendence of Major W.N. Lees (ed.). Badshah Namah. Calcutta: College Press. Latif, Syad Muhammad (April 2003) [1896]. Agra: Historical and Descriptive - With an Account of Akbar and His Court and of the Modern City of Agra. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120617096 . Petruccioli, Attilio (ed.) (1997). "The Mughal Waterfront Garden. Gardens in the Time of the Great Muslim Empires: Theory and Design". E. J. Brill. Retrieved 2007-02-13. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Petruccioli, Attilio (June 2006). "Rethinking the Islamic Garden" (PDF). Bulletin 103. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. Retrieved 2007-07-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) Qaisar, Ahsan Jan (1988) [April 1989]. Building Construction in Mughal India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 83 pages. ISBN 019562260X. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help )

Further reading

• Carroll, David (August 1975). Taj Mahal. Wonders of Man. Newsweek, US. pp. 172 pages.
  ISBN 0882250248. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link
  )
• Gascoigne, Bamber (November 1971). The Great Moghuls. Harper Collins. pp. 264 pages.
  ISBN 0060114673. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link
  )
• Havel, E.B. [1913]. Indian Architecture: Its Psychology, Structure and History, John Murray pdf version
• Lall, John (December 1994). Taj Mahal. Tiger Books.
  ISBN 1855015900. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link
  )
• Rothfarb, Ed [1998]. In the Land of the Taj Mahal, Henry Holt
  ISBN 0-8050-5299-2
• Saksena, Banarsi Prasad History of Shahjahan of Dihli (Allahabad: The Indian Press Ltd.) 1932
• Stielin, Henri (December 1994). Islamic India (Architecture of the World). S.A.: Compagnie du Livre d' Art. ASIN B000ASTXA0. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
• Tillotson, G. H. R. (1990) [April 1990]. Mughal India (Architectural Guides for Travelers). Chronicle books. pp. 150 pages.
  ISBN 0877016860. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help
  )

External links

• Archeological Survey of India description
• Taj Mahal travel guide from Wikivoyage
• Citizendium article

27°10′30″N 78°02′32″E / 27.17500°N 78.04222°E / 27.17500; 78.04222

Category:1648 architecture Category:Mausoleums Category:Monuments and memorials in India Category:Mughal architecture Category:Islamic architecture Category:Agra