Iwan
An iwan (
Iwans are most commonly associated with
Etymology
Iwan is a Persian word that was subsequently borrowed into other languages such as Arabic and Turkish.[6] The New Persian form is eyvān and its etymology is unclear.[7]
A theory by scholars like
The term in Old Persian means "unprotected",[citation needed] and the design allows the structure to be open to the elements on one side. At Persepolis, however, the apadāna takes the form of a veranda (a flat roof held up by columns rather than a vault) but is still open to the elements on only one side.
By the time of the Parthian and the Sasanian Empires, the iwan had emerged as two types of structure: the old columned one and a newer vaulted structure; both, however, carrying the same native name of apadana/iwan, because both types are open on one side to the elements.[citation needed]
Ivan is an alternative form of the name, used in Iran, reflecting the Persian pronunciation.[9]
Origins
Many scholars, including Edward Keall, André Godard, Roman Ghirshman, and Mary Boyce, discuss the invention of the iwan in Mesopotamia, the area around today's
The feature which most distinctly makes the iwan a landmark development in the history of Ancient Near Eastern architecture is the incorporation of a
Outside Mesopotamia, a number of extant vaulted structures stand, including many examples from
Iwans were a trademark of the
Parthian iwans
Although some scholars have asserted that the iwan form may have developed under the
The second iwan building is located across a courtyard, and Walter Andrae, a German archaeologist, suggested that it served as an administrative building rather than as a religious center because there is no evidence of inscriptions or wall carvings.
Sasanian iwans
The
-
Taq-i Bostan
-
The iwan of the Palace of Ardashir
Iwan of Khosrau
The most famous example of a
The dating for the Taq-i Kisra has been debated throughout history; however, a variety of documents detailing the arrival of Byzantine sculptors and architects sent by the Byzantine Emperor
Islamic iwans
Islamic art and architecture was also heavily influenced inspired by Roman, Byzantine, and Sasanian designs, both due to the presence of extant examples and contact between cultures. For example, the Great Mosque of Damascus was built in the early eighth century CE on the site of a Roman Christian church, and incorporates a nave-like element with a tall arcade and clerestory. The Sasanian Empire also had a tremendous impact on the development of Islamic architecture; however, there was some overlap between the Sasanians and the Muslims making it difficult at times to determine who was influencing whom.[31] Islamic art and architecture borrowed many Sasanian decorative motifs and architectural forms, including the iwan.
Iwans were used frequently in Islamic non-religious architecture before the twelfth century, including houses, community spaces, and civic structures such as the bridge of
Within the
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Iwans in the Friday Mosque of Ardestan, Iran, added in 12th century by the Seljuks
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Iwan inside the Hospital of Divriği, Turkey, built in Anatolia under Seljuk domination in the 13th century
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Iwan in the Al-Firdaws Madrasa in Aleppo, Syria, built by the Ayyubids in the 13th century
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Iwan entrance of the Bibi-Khanym Mosque in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, built by Timur in the early 15th century
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Qibla-side iwan of theMadrasa of al-Ghuri (early 16th century) in Cairo, Egypt, an example of an iwan with a flat roof in Mamluk architecture
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Iwan entrance of the Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque in Isfahan, Iran, built under the Safavids in the early 17th century
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Iwan of the Āmeri House in Kashan, Iran (18th century)
Four-iwan plan
The four-iwan plan (cruciform) is one of the most characteristic floor plans of Islamic architecture,
The history of the evolution of the standard four-iwan plan has been debated by scholars.[42][35] The four-iwan plan was already in use in palace and temple architecture during both the Parthian and Sasanian periods.[13][19] The earliest known appearance of the four-iwan plan in Islamic architecture is at the dār al-imāra (governor's palace) in Kufa, as rebuilt by the Umayyad governor Ziyād ibn Abīh in the late 7th century.[34] It only became common in mosque design in the twelfth century, long after the iwan's invention in the first century CE.[43] The first patrons to incorporate this layout into mosques were the Seljuks, with the first example probably being the Seljuk modifications to the Great Mosque of Isfahan in the early 12th century, though the layout also appears in other mosques in Iran built or renovated by the Seljuks around the same time.[44][39][35] André Godard attributes both the origin and spread of this design to the appearance of madrasas, which also began with the Seljuks, and he further argued that the layout was derived from the style of domestic architecture indigenous to Khorasan.[42][35] The details of Godard's origin theory have not all been accepted by other scholars,[45] but it is widely-attested that the four-iwan layout spread to other regions with the subsequent proliferation of madrasas across the Islamic world.[46][47][34] In some regions it also spread to other building types such as caravanserais and bimaristans.[42][34][40]
In the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods of Egypt and Syria the four-iwan plan was prominently used in the architecture of madrasas, with the most monumental example being the massive 14th-century
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Çifte Minareli Medrese (13th century) in Erzurum, Turkey, a variation of the four-iwan plan in Anatolian Seljuk architecture
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Four-iwan layout at theMosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan(14th century) in Cairo, Egypt
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Interior of the Green Mosque (14th century) in Bursa, Turkey, an example of the modified four-iwan plan in early Ottoman architecture
See also
Notes
- ^ Some scholars have claimed that the iwan developed not in Mesopotamia, but in Nisaea (the ancient Parthian capital) where it was a result of Greek workers living and working in Parthia. For more information on the Nisaea theory, see Curatola & Scarcia (2004), p. 57.
- ^ Although the Parthians have been credited with the invention of the first fully developed iwan, there have been claims that some iwan-like forms existed during the Seleucid period in Mesopotamia, namely at Dura Europos. F. E. Brown claimed that an iwan-type hall may have existed in the Temple of Zeus Megistos; however it has been contested. Many scholars believe that any iwans built at the Temple were likely later Parthian additions. Brown argued that the Temple of Zeus Megistos could have been modeled after the triple-iwan terraces at Masjid-I Solaiman or Bard-è Néchandeh, both of which archaeologist Roman Ghirshman claimed to date from the Achaemenid Persians; however, in later excavations Ghirshman discovered that both terraces did not in fact support iwan structures. Susan Downey argues that both the date and the western location make any early iwans at Dura Europos unlikely. Every other iwan from before the Sasanian period is found further east, such as at Hatra, Ashur, or Seleucia-on-the-Tigris. For more information on the claimed Seleucid iwans, see Downey (1988), pp. 78–85.
References
- ^ Wright (1992), p. 508
- ^ Boas (2010), p. 366
- ^ "Eyvan". azerdict.com (in Azerbaijani). Archived from the original on 5 May 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2019.
- ^ Dictionary of Islamic architecture: Pishtaq Archived 2011-06-29 at the Wayback Machine archnet.org.
- Britannica.com.
- ^ ISBN 9789004161214.
- ^ Northern Akkad Project Reports. University of Ghent. 1991. p. 78.
- ^ Grabar, Oleg (2011) [1987]. "AYVĀN". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
- ^ Sitwell (1957)
- ^ Keall (1974), pp. 129–130.
- ^ Keall (1974), p. 126
- ^ Doulas Harper, "Vault", last modified 2010, www.dictionary.com.
- ^ a b c Keall (1974), p. 124
- ^ Smith & Simpson (1998), pp. 18, 82
- ^ "Dictionary of Islamic architecture: Ivvan". archnet.org. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011.
- ^ Farrokh (2007), p. 173
- ^ Warren & Fethi (1982), p. 30
- ^ a b Downey (1988), p. 151
- ^ a b c Rawson, 46
- ^ Downey (1988), p. 152
- ^ Curatola & Scarcia (2004), pp. 56–61
- ^ Downey (1988), pp. 137–173
- ^ Curatola & Scarcia (2004), p. 92
- ^ Curatola & Scarcia (2004), pp. 94–104
- ^ Downey (1988), pp. 156–170
- ^ Curatola & Scarcia (2004), pp. 92–96
- ^ Reade (1999), pp. 185–186
- ^ Iran, Seven Faces of Civilization - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtcE37IIqfQ
- ^ a b Kurz (1941), pp. 38–40
- ^ Bier (1993), pp. 63–64
- ^ Bier (1993), pp. 58–61
- ^ Curatola & Scarcia (2004), pp. 129–135
- ^ Bier (1993), p. 57
- ^ ISBN 9789004161658.
- ^ ISBN 9780195309911.
- ^ Behrens-Abouseif 2007, p. 73-77.
- ^ Williams 2018, p. 30.
- ^ JSTOR 4629449.
- ^ ISBN 9783848003808.
- ^ ISBN 9780195309911.
- ISBN 978-0-300-06465-0.
- ^ a b c Godard (1951)
- ^ Keall (1974), p. 123
- ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 140-144.
- ISBN 9780195309911.
- ^ Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S., eds. (2009). "Madrasa". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Pedersen, J.; Makdisi, G.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R. (2012). "Madrasa". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.
- ^ Behrens-Abouseif 2007.
- ^ Williams 2018.
- ISBN 9780300064650.
- ^ Marçais 1954, p. 285, 293.
- ISBN 9780195309911.
Bibliography
- Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2007). Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture. The American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 9789774160776.
- Bier, Lionel (1993). "The Sassanian Palaces and their influence in Early Islam". Ars Orientalis. 23: 57–66.
- Boas, Adrian J. (2010). Domestic Settings: Sources on Domestic Architecture and Day-to-Day Activities in the Crusader States. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-18272-1.
- Curatola, Giovanni; Scarcia, Gianroberto (2004). The Art and Architecture of Persia. Translated by Shore, Marguerite. London: Abbeville Press.
- Downey, Susan B. (1988). Mesopotamian Religious Architecture: Alexander through the Parthians. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691035895.
- Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2001). Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250 (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300088670.
- Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.
- Gillispie, Charles Coulston; Dewachter, Michel (1987). Monuments of Egypt: the Napoleonic edition. The Complete Archaeological Plates from La Description de l'Egypte. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 9780910413213.
- Godard, André (1951). "L'origine de la Madrasa, de la Mosquée et du Caravansérail Àquartre Iwans". Ars Islamica. 15.
- Keall, Edward J. (1974). "Some thoughts on the early iwan". In Dickran Kouymjian (ed.). Near Eastern Numismatics, Iconography, Epigraphy, and History, Studies in Honor of George C. Miles. Beirut: American University of Beirut. pp. 123–130.
- Kurz, Otto (1941). "The Date of the Ṭāq i Kisrā". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 73 (1): 37–41. S2CID 162160996.
- Marçais, Georges (1954). L'architecture musulmane d'Occident. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.
- Najm, Ra'ef (2001). "Islamic architectural character of Jerusalem: with special description of the al-Aqṣā and the Dome of the Rock". Islamic Studies. 40 (3): 721–734. JSTOR 20837154.
- Rabbat, Nasser O. (1989). The Citadel of Cairo: a New Interpretation of Royal Mamluk Architecture. Geneva: AKTC.
- ISBN 0714114316
- Reade, Julian (1999). Christopher Scarre (ed.). The Seventy Wonders of the Ancient world The Great Monuments and How they were Built. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05096-1.
- Sitwell, Sacheverell (1957). Arabesque and Honeycomb. Robert Hale.
- Smith, W. Stevenson; Simpson, William Kelly (1998). The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. Pelican history of art. Vol. 14. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300077476.
- Upton, Joseph M. (1932). "The Expedition to Ctesiphon, 1931–1932" (PDF). The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 27 (8): 188–197. JSTOR 3255274.
- Warren, John; Fethi, Ihsan (1982). Traditional Houses in Baghdad. Coach Publishing House. ISBN 9780902608016.
- Williams, Caroline (2018). Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide (7th ed.). Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.
- Wright, G. R. H. (1992). Ancient building in Cyprus. Brill. ISBN 90-04-09547-0.
Further reading
- Blair, Sheila, and Bloom, Jonathan M., The Art and Architecture of Islam, 1250–1800, 1995, Yale University Press and Pelican History of Art. ISBN 0300064659.
- Henri Frankfort, Michael Roaf, Donald Matthews. The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996. ISBN 9780300064704