Zapotec civilization
Zapotec Civilization Be'ena'a ( Zapotec) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
c. 700 BCE–1521 CE | |||||||
Status | Zapotec–Mixtec Alliance | ||||||
Capital |
| ||||||
Common languages | Zapotec languages | ||||||
Religion | Polytheistic | ||||||
Government | Hereditary monarchy | ||||||
Monarch | |||||||
• 1328–1361 | Ozomatli | ||||||
• 1361–1386 | Huijatoo | ||||||
• 1386–1415 | Zaachila I | ||||||
• 1415–1454 | Zaachila II | ||||||
• 1454–1487 | Zaachila III | ||||||
• 1487–1521 | Cosijoeza | ||||||
• 1518–1563 | Cocijopij | ||||||
Historical era | Pre-classic – Late post-classic | ||||||
• Fall of San José Mogote | c. 700 BCE | ||||||
• Conflict between Zapotecs and Mixtecs in the empire | 1519–1521 | ||||||
• Spanish Conquest | 1521 CE | ||||||
• Last Zapotec resistance | 1521–1563 | ||||||
| |||||||
Today part of | Mexico • Oaxaca |
The Zapotec civilization (Be'ena'a (
History
Zapotec civilization originated in the Y-shaped
During the same period, a new large settlement developed in the "no-man's-land" on top of a mountain overlooking the three valleys; it was later called
The Zapotec state formed at Monte Albán began to expand during the late Monte Alban 1 phase (400–100 BC) and throughout the Monte Alban 2 phase (100 BC – AD 200). During Monte Alban 1c (roughly 200 BC) to Monte Alban 2 (200 BC – AD 100), Zapotec rulers seized control of the provinces outside the valley of Oaxaca, because none of the surrounding provinces could compete with them politically and militarily.[3] By 200 AD, the Zapotec had extended their influence, from Quiotepec in the North to Ocelotepec and Chiltepec in the South. Monte Albán had become the largest city in what are today the southern Mexican highlands, and retained this status until approximately 700 AD.[4]
The expansion of the Zapotec empire peaked during the Monte Alban 2 phase. The Zapotec conquered or colonized settlements far beyond The Valley of Oaxaca. Most notably, their influence is visible in the sudden change in style of ceramics made in regions outside the valley. These regions' unique styles were suddenly replaced with Zapotec-style pottery, indicating their integration into the Zapotec empire.
Archaeologist Alfonso Caso, one of the first to conduct excavations in Monte Albán in the 1930s, argued that a building on the main plaza of Monte Albán is further evidence for the dramatic expansion of the Zapotec state: What today is called building J is shaped like an arrowhead, unlike other monumental buildings. It displays more than 40 carved stones with hieroglyphic writing. Archaeologists interpreted the glyphs to represent the provinces controlled by the Zapotec. Each glyph group also depicts a head, with an elaborate head dress, carved into the slabs. These are assumed to represent the rulers of the provinces. Heads turned upside down are believed to represent the rulers killed and whose provinces were taken by force, while the upright ones may represent those who did not resist annexation and had their lives spared. For this reason, building J is also referred to by archeologists as “The Conquest Slab”.[5]
Marcus and Flannery write about the subsequent dramatic expansion of the Monte Albán state, noting when there is
"a great disparity in populations between the core of a state and its periphery, it may only be necessary for the former to send colonists to the latter. Small polities, seeing that resistance would be futile, may accept a face-saving offer. Larger polities unwilling to lose their autonomy may have to be subdued militarily. During the expansion of Monte Alban 2 state, we think we see both colonization and conquest".[6]
Warfare and resistance
The last battle between the Aztecs and the Zapotecs occurred between 1497–1502, under the Aztec ruler
Etymology
The name Zapotec is an
Language
Phase | Period |
---|---|
Monte Alban 1 | ca 400–100 BC |
Monte Alban 2 | ca 100 BC – AD 100 |
Monte Alban 3 | ca AD 200-900 |
Monte Alban 4 | ca 900–1350 |
Monte Alban 5 | ca 1350–1521 |
The Zapotec languages belong to a language family called Oto-manguean, an ancient family of Mesoamerican languages. It is estimated that today's Oto-manguean languages branched off from a common root at around 1500 BC. The Manguean languages probably split off first, followed by the Oto-pamean branch while the divergence of Mixtecan and Zapotecan languages happened later still.[8] The Zapotecan group includes the Zapotec languages and the closely related Chatino. Zapotec languages are spoken in parts of the Northern Sierra, the Central Valleys as well as in parts of the Southern Sierra, in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and along parts of the Pacific Coast.[9] Due to decades of out-migration, Zapotec is also spoken in parts of Mexico City and Los Angeles, CA. There are 7 distinct Zapotec languages and over 100 dialects.
Zapotec is a
Society
Between Monte Alban phases 1 and 2 there was a considerable expansion of the population of the Valley of Oaxaca. As the population grew, so did the degree of social differentiation, the centralization of political power, and ceremonial activity. During Monte Alban 1-2 the valley appears to have been fragmented into several independent states, as manifested in regional centers of power.[11] By Monte Alban phase 3, the fragmentation between the city and the valleys resulted in a swell in the population and urban development of Monte Albán itself.[12]
Geography
The
Innovation of farming enabled the Zapotec to pay tribute to the Spanish conquerors and create enough surplus to feed themselves despite natural disasters and disease.[14]
Technology
The Zapotecs developed a calendar and a
In the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, there were Zapotec and Mixtec artisans who fashioned jewelry for the Aztec rulers (tlatoanis), including Moctezuma II. However, relations with central Mexico go back much further, as suggested by the archaeological remains of a Zapotec neighborhood within Teotihuacan and a Teotihuacan style "guest house" in Monte Albán. Other important pre-Columbian Zapotec sites include Lambityeco, Dainzú, Mitla, Yagul, San José Mogote, El Palmillo and Zaachila.
The Zapotecs were a sedentary culture living in villages and towns, in houses constructed with stone and mortar. They recorded the principal events in their history by means of hieroglyphics, and in warfare they made use of a cotton armour. The well-known ruins of Mitla have been attributed to them.
The various regions often employed different hunting methods most notable is the "deer catapult" described by Vésquez Dévlla as a young tree bent over with the help of the hunting party, held down by vines. The deer will wander into and trigger the trap. at which point the deer would be ensnared and flung into the canopy killed by impacting with trees or in the case of a canyon the deer will be flung into the canyon side.
Writing
At Monte Albán archaeologists have found extended text in a glyphic script. Some signs can be recognized as calendar information but the script as such remains undeciphered. Read in columns from top to bottom, its execution is somewhat cruder than that of the later Classic Maya and this has led epigraphers to believe that the script was also less phonetic than the largely syllabic
The earliest known artifact with Zapotec writing is a Danzante ("dancer") stone, officially known as Monument 3, found in San José Mogote, Oaxaca. It has a relief of what appears to be a dead and bloodied captive with two glyphic signs between his legs, possibly his name. First dated to 500–600 BC, this was initially considered the earliest writing in Mesoamerica. However, doubts have been expressed as to this dating as the monument may have been reused. The Zapotec script appears to have gone out of use in the late Classic period.
Religion
Like most Mesoamerican religious systems, the Zapotec religion was polytheistic. Some known deities were
There are several legends of the origin of the Zapotec. One of them is that they were the original people of the valley of Oaxaca and were born from rocks, or descended from big cats such as pumas, jaguars and ocelots. Another is that the Zapotec settled in the Oaxaca valley after founding the Toltec empire, and were descendants of the people of Chicomoztoc. These legends were not transcribed until after the Spanish conquest.[18]
According to historical and contemporary Zapotec legends, their ancestors emerged from the earth, from caves, or turned into people from trees or jaguars. Their governing elite believed that they descended from supernatural beings who lived among the clouds, and that upon death they would return to the clouds. The name by which Zapotecs are known today results from this belief. The Zapotecs of the Central Valleys call themselves "Be'ena' Za'a" - The Cloud People.
Dedication rituals
The Zapotec used dedication rituals to sanctify their living spaces and structures. Excavation of Mound III at the Cuilapan Temple Pyramid in Oaxaca revealed a dedication cache containing many jade beads, two jade earspools, three obsidian blades, shells, stones, a pearl, and small animal bones, likely from birds, dated to 700 AD.[19] Each of these materials symbolized different religious concepts. As it was not easily attainable, jade was valued, and worked jade even more so because the elite were the primary artists. Obsidian blades are associated with sacrifice, as they were commonly used in bloodletting rituals. Shells and pearl represent the underworld, being from the ocean, and the small bird bones represent the sky and its relation to the balanced cosmos. These artifacts are significant due to their placement in a structure used for ritual and associated with power. This cache is a form of dedication ritual, dedicating the Cuilapan Temple Pyramid to these ideas of power, sacrifice, and the relationship between underworld and cosmos.
Notes
- ^ Marcus & Flannery 1996, p. 144.
- ^ Marcus & Flannery 1996, p. 146.
- ^ Marcus & Flannery 1996, p. 206.
- ^ Marcus & Flannery 1996, p. 208.
- ^ Marcus & Flannery 1996, p. 196.
- ^ Marcus & Flannery 1996, p. 198.
- ^ Whitecotton 1977, p. 26 Ll.1-3.
- ^ Whitecotton 1977, pp. 12–13 Ll.2-16.
- ^ Whitecotton 1977, p. 12 Ll.35-37.
- ^ Whitecotton 1977, p. 13 Ll.20-27.
- ^ Whitecotton 1977, p. 33 Ll.16-18.
- ISBN 978-0-500-29066-8.
- ^ a b Marcus & Flannery 1996, pp. 147–148.
- ISBN 978-0-292-77897-9.[page needed]
- ^ Bower, Bruce (4 December 2002). "Script Delivery: New World writing takes disputed turn". Science News.
- ^ Whitecotton 1977, p. 52 Ll.23- 33.
- ^ Whitecotton 1977, pp. 52–53 Ll.34- 2.
- ^ Whitecotton 1977, p. 23 Ll.11-26.
- .
References
- OCLC 34409496.
- OCLC 33359444.
- OCLC 23095346.
- Whitecotton, Joseph W. (1977). The Zapotecs: Princes, Priests and Peasants. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
- Zeitlin, Robert N. (March 2000). "Two Perspectives on the Rise of Civilization in Mesoamerica's Oaxaca Valley - Ancient Oaxaca: The Monte Albán State. Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. Case Studies in Early Societies. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1999. x + 153 pp., figures, bibliography, index. $49.95 (cloth), $14.95 (paper)". Latin American Antiquity. 11 (1): 87–89. S2CID 232398351.
- Vasquez Davila, Marco (1995). APROVECHAMIENTO FAUNISTICO TRADICIONAL ENOAXACA: CAZA y PESCA INDIGENA (in Spanish). pp. 3–6.
External links
- Whitecotton, Joseph W. (1984). The Zapotecs: princes, priests, and peasants. The University of Oklahoma Press. OCLC 317459075.
- Media related to Zapotec people at Wikimedia Commons