Astronomica (Manilius)
Astronomica | |
---|---|
by Marcus Manilius | |
Translator | Thomas Creech Edward Sherburne G. P. Goold |
Written | c. AD 30–40 |
Country | Roman Empire |
Language | Latin |
Subject(s) | astronomy, astrology |
Genre(s) | Didactic |
Meter | Hexameter |
Published in English | 1674/1697 |
Media type | manuscript |
Lines | 4,200 |
The Astronomica (
The earliest work on astrology that is extensive, comprehensible, and mostly intact, the Astronomica describes celestial phenomena, and, in particular, the
The poem was rediscovered c. 1416–1417 by the Italian humanist and scholar Poggio Bracciolini, who had a copy made from which the modern text derives. Upon its rediscovery, the Astronomica was read, commented upon, and edited by a number of scholars, most notably Joseph Justus Scaliger, Richard Bentley, and A. E. Housman. The poem was never as popular as other classical Latin poems and was neglected for centuries after its rediscovery. This started to change during the early 20th century when Housman published his critically acclaimed edition of the poem in five books (1903–30). Housman's work was followed by G. P. Goold's lauded English translation in 1977. Today, scholars consider Astronomica to be highly technical, complicated, and occasionally contradictory. At the same time, many have praised Manilius's ability to translate heady astronomical concepts and complex mathematical computations into poetry.
Authorship and date
Because no contemporary Roman sources mention his name, the exact identity of the Astronomica's author is a tantalizing question, but his name was probably
The work's date has been debated. The only historical event to which there is a clear reference is the
Contents
According to Volk, Manilius's Astronomica is the earliest work on astrology that is extensive, comprehensible, and mostly extant.[19] Volk wrote that since he dedicates the poem to stellar phenomena, it is "indicative of the great fascination ... that the stars held for the Romans of Manilius' period".[20]
Summary
The Astronomica, which is written in
In the first book he ponders the origin of the universe, considering the theories of
Books two and three deal mainly with the finer details of the zodiac.
The third book – which focuses mainly on "determin[ing] the degree of the ecliptic which is rising about the horizon at the moment" of a person's birth – opens with Manilius's reiteration that his work is original.[57][58] Because his topic is complex and difficult, the poet tells his audience they can "expect truth but not beauty".[55] He then discusses the third astrologically significant circle, the lots,[e][45][59] which are points on a birth chart[f] that carry special significance.[53] Subsequent verses explain how to calculate the ascendant,[g] the horoscope,[nb 6][65] and chronocrators;[h][66] and how to determine the projected length of one's life.[67] The third book concludes with a discussion about the tropic signs,[i][55][69] which, while not particularly pertinent to the astrological content of the book, allows Manilius to end the book on a "poetic note".[57] Most scholars consider the third book to be highly technical; according to Goold it "is the least poetical of the five, exemplifying for the most part Manilius's skill in rendering numbers and arithmetical calculations in hexameters".[57] A similar but less favorable sentiment is expressed by Green, who writes that in this book, "the disjuncture between instruction and medium is most obviously felt [because] complex mathematical calculations are confined to hexameter and obscured behind poetic periphrasis".[70]
Books four and five are largely about "the effects of particular celestial phenomena on the native".
Most of the fifth (and final) book is a discussion of
Worldview
According to Volk, "The basic tenet of what we might call Manilius' natural philosophy is the idea that the universe is divine".[87] She writes that Manilius is inconsistent about the location of this divinity. For instance, in his first book, Manilius claims the perfectly regular movement of the sun, moon, planets, and stars is proof that the universe is the product of a god; he also says the universe itself is a god (mundum ... ipsum esse deum).[87][88] Later in the same book, Manilius again says the universe is the "work of a great divinity" (magni ... numinis ordo).[87][89] Concerning this vacillation, Volk writes; "It is clear that there is a certain elasticity to Manilius' concept of the divinity of the universe ... Is the world simply ruled by a diuinum numen (cf. 1.484) or is it a deus (cf 1.485) itself?"[90] Volk answers that in the cosmology of the Astronomica, "God can be understood as the soul or breath ... present within the world [and] since this divine entity completely pervades the cosmos, it makes equally much sense to call the cosmos itself a god".[91] According to Volk, this interpretation of the universe, which states that it has a sense of intellect and that it operates in an orderly way, thus allows Manilius to contend both that there is an unbroken chain of cause and effect affecting everything within the cosmos and that fate rules all.[92]
Volk points out the poem borrows or alludes to a number of philosophical traditions, including Hermeticism, Platonism, and Pythagoreanism[93] but the prevailing belief of commentators is that Manilius espouses a Stoic worldview in the Astronomica.[94] A comparison between Manilius's beliefs and those of other Stoics reveals parallels that according to Volk "are immediately obvious".[95] For instance, Stoics and Manilius agree on the divinity of the universe, the argument from design, the assumption that the supreme god is both the creator of the universe and the active force within it, the interconnectedness of everything, the understanding that humans are intimately connected to the cosmos, the importance of considering the heavens, and the belief in an inescapable fate that rules over all.[96] The agreement on this latter point is of special importance because, according to Volk, belief in fate is "one of the most notorious aspects of the Stoic system".[97]
The identification of the poem as Stoic, however, is not unanimous.
Style
Many consider the Astronomica to be a work of erudition, elegance, and passion.
In addition to its stylistic oddities, the Astronomica includes inconsistencies. According to Green, it is "riddled with confusion and contradiction"; he cites its "presentation of incompatible systems of astrological calculation, information overload, deferral of meaning and contradictory instruction".[115] At the same time, Green notes that similar issues exist in other first-to-third-century astrological works.[115] According to Caroline Stark, Manilius paradoxically claims astrological knowledge may be acquired by individuals and that it is only granted by divine favor.[116] T. Barton says Manilius may have included these contradictions and complexities so he would be regarded as "a figure of unreachable knowledge for the novice student-reader".[115] Green, while not ruling out this hypothesis, says Manilius was probably not motivated by a "desire to carve out for himself a position of power in the new imperial world of experts" as Barton says.[115] Rather, Green says Manilius – due to his "pride in poetic innovation" and his "deference ... to the Emperor" – sought to present "himself as a compliant imperial agent, intent on producing a creative poetic enterprise that plots its own way through the levels of acceptable stellar discourse in the early empire".[115] David Pingree concludes that the poem's "principal purpose seems to have been to delight its audience with poetry and to arouse admiration for the poet by its cleverness".[117]
Completeness
It is unknown whether the Astronomica is a finished work; a large lacuna between lines 5.709 and 5.710 presents a problem with this discussion.[19] According to Housman, based strictly on the contents of the Astronomica, one cannot cast a full horoscope because necessary information – such as an in-depth survey of the planets and the effects constellations both inside and outside the zodiac produce upon their setting – is missing.[19][118] According to Volk, the lack of a lengthy consideration of the planets is rather puzzling because Manilius claims several times that he will examine their zodiacal nature.[19] Goold writes that "a didactic poem is seldom an exhaustive treatise" and argues that Manilius likely gave a "perfunctory account of the planets' natures in the great lacuna [and then] considered his obligations duly discharged".[119]
Others have argued the work was originally longer and some hypothesize it comprised eight books.[118][120] These writers base their assertion on a letter sent in AD 983 by Gerbertus Aureliacensis (later Pope Sylvester II) to the Archbishop of Rheims, in which the former reports he had recently located "eight volumes about astrology by Boethius" (viii volumina Boetii de astrologia) at the abbey at Bobbio.[120] Boethius was often confused with Manilius because one of the former's names was "Manlius".[121] Those who favor the idea the poem was once longer argue the manuscript at Bobbio was a misattributed eight-book version of the Astronomica. Goold repudiates this hypothesis, noting the catalogue at Bobbio lists the work Gerbertus was likely referring to as composed of "three books by Boethius about arithmetic, and the rest [i.e. five] about astronomy" (libros Boetii iii de aritmetica [sic] et alterum de astronomia).[120] This, according to Goold, is evidence Gerbertus found one manuscript that contained both Boethius's De arithmetica and Manilius's Astronomica rather than an eight-book version of the latter.[120]
Volk, when considering the problem of completeness, proposed several hypotheses: the work is mostly complete but internally inconsistent about which topics it will and will not consider; the lacuna in book five may have originally contained the missing information; the lacuna may be relatively small and the work is unfinished; or entire books may have originally existed but were lost over time through the "hazardous process of textual transmission".[19]
Influences
Manilius frequently imitates Lucretius, who wrote the didactic poem
The Astronomica is influenced by Ovid's Metamorphoses, Virgil's Aeneid, Ennius's Annales, and the Greek didactic poet Aratus.[3][58][128] Aratus's influence s especially noticeable, and it seems likely that Manilius based much of his first book on portions of Aratus's Phaenomena.[28][129] Despite his debt to Aratus, Manilius diverges from his understanding of the cosmos; Aratus focuses on mythology and "graphic description", whereas Manilius emphasizes the scientific aspects of his work.[130] It is uncertain if Manilius had direct knowledge of Aratus's poem or if he used a translation by Cicero, Ovid, or Germanicus.[131][132] The latter position is favored by several 21st-century scholars, such as Dora Liuzzi and Emma Gee.[132][133] In regards to the poet's relationship with Germanicus, Wolfgang Hübner writes: "The few echoes of Germanicus' translation of Aratus are insufficient for us to establish which of the two drew on the other, or whether the two were composed independently of each other."[134]
The Astronomica directly refers to Homer (as the "greatest poet", maximus vates) as well as Hesiod (calling him "nearest to [Homer]", proximus illi),
Textual history
Although there are over thirty existing manuscript copies of the Astronomica, the text as it is known today is derived from three key manuscripts: Codex Gemblacensis (G), Codex Lipsiensis (L), and Codex Matritensis (M).[nb 7] These in turn belong to two separate manuscript families: "α" (which includes G and L), and "β" (which includes M).[139][140] Of the two families, Robinson Ellis wrote: "[α] represents a text more correct, but worse interpolated; [β], a text which is fuller of copyists' errors, but less interpolated."[141]
The first family, "α", takes its name from a now-lost source and includes manuscripts G and L.[139][140] G, dating from the late 10th to the 11th century, was found at the monastery of Gembloux in Brabant, in modern-day Belgium; L, from the library of Leipzig, was probably written around the mid-11th century and has many corrections made by a scribe.[138] Housman argues that L is the superior of the two, as it was probably copied straight from α, whereas G was probably derived from a copy of a copy.[142]
The second family, "β", takes its name from the now-lost archetype and includes manuscript M,[139][140] which itself is a direct descendant of the manuscript that Poggio Bracciolini rediscovered (i.e. the aforementioned manuscript β) near Konstanz during a break in the Council of Constance c. 1416–17.[138][139][143] M had been transcribed by a German amanuensis on Bracciolini's request, but due to the scribe's incompetence[nb 8] the resultant manuscript was riddled with mistakes, prompting Bracciolini to sarcastically remark that the new copy had to be "divined rather than read" (divinare oportet non legere).[138][144] Although poorly written, M has been singled out as possibly the most important surviving manuscript, because it was a direct copy of the archetype (β), whereas G and L are derived from a less "faithful" copy (that is, α) of the archetype.[140]
Following the invention of the printing press, the editio princeps of the Astronomica was published in Nuremberg around 1473 by the astronomer Regiomontanus from an error-riddled Italian copy.[145][146][147] The text was critically edited by Joseph Justus Scaliger, whose first edition was published in Paris in 1579; a second and improved edition, collated at least partially from the Codex Gemblacensis, was published in Leiden in 1599–1600, and a third edition was published in 1655 after Scaliger's death by Johann Heinrich Boeckler.[148][149][147] An edition with many corrections was published by Richard Bentley in 1739.[150] Then, in five volumes between 1903 and 1930, Housman published what is considered by many scholars the authoritative edition of the poem (with a single-volume editio minor published in 1932).[148][151] According to Volk, "[Housman's] work is famous—some might say notorious—for its bold handling of the text, its incisive commentary, and its merciless ... invective against other scholars."[148] In 1977, G. P. Goold published a Loeb English translation, with substantial introductory notes and diagrams.[152] This was the first translation of the poem into English prose (Book I had been translated into English verse by Edward Sherburne in 1674, and the entire poem by Thomas Creech in 1697).[5][153][154] Goold's translation was called "masterly" by Volk and Steven Green.[155] It was reprinted in 1992, and Goold issued a corrected edition in 1997 that took into account, among other things, W. S. Watt's article "Maniliana".[156]
Impact and scholarship
While Manilius is not quoted by any extant Roman author, many scholars argue that he is alluded to by a number of authors, including:
Volk notes that the earliest references to Astronomica—aside from literary allusions—may be found in two Roman funerary inscriptions, both of which bear the line, "We are born to die, and our end hangs from the beginning" (nascentes morimur finisque ab origine pendet) from the poem's fourth book.[159][160][161] This theory is not without its detractors, and scholars such as A. Maranini and Gómez Pallarès have suggested that these two inscriptions are forgeries dating from the Renaissance.[159]
Few copies of the Astronomica survived into the medieval period, and consequently Manilius seems to have been little read during this period. However, there are a few exceptions to this dearth of attention. Hübner, for instance, writes that Manilius may have inspired some of the writings of Columbanus.[134] Additionally, an AD 988 letter from Gerbertus Aureliacensis to the abbey at Bobbio in which a request is made for a work "by M. Manilius (or possibly Manlius) about astrology" (M. Manilius (v.l. Manlius) de astrologica) is evidence that a copy of the Astronomica was probably kept in the library at Bobbio.[120][162]
Although it was largely ignored during antiquity and the Middle Ages, the poem generated scholarly interest upon its 15th-century rediscovery. The Italian humanist Lorenzo Bonincontri delivered lectures on the Astronomica to large audiences and compiled his lecture notes into the work's first commentary.[163] Bonincontri was apparently interested in Manilius's treatment of the nature of comets in the first book of the Astronomica, and, according to Stephan Heilen, portions of Bonincontri's De rebus naturalibus et divinis are based on Manilius's work.[164]
Despite the attention it received after its rediscovery, the Astronomica has never been as widely studied as other classical Latin poems. Nonetheless, interest in the poem developed in the second half of the 20th century when scholars began to study Manilius's philosophical and scientific ideas.
Scholars have noted the irony of Manilius's relative obscurity, because he wrote the Astronomica in the hope of attaining literary immortality. Housman voiced this sentiment in a dedicatory Latin poem written for the first volume of his edition that contrasted the movement of celestial objects with mortality and the fate of Manilius's work.[148] He compared the Astronomica to a shipwreck (carmina ... naufraga), arguing that it was incomplete and imperfect, having barely survived textual transmission; Housman mused that because Manilius's ambitions of literary fame and immortality had been almost entirely dashed, his work should serve as an example of why "no man ever ought to trust the gods" (ne quis forte deis fidere vellet homo).[148]
Zodiacal definitions
- ^ The Zodiac: "an imagined band on the sphere of fixed stars 23.5 degree angle to the celestial equator, which forms the backdrop of the seven planets' orbits around the earth."[44]
- ^ Dodecatemoria: the division of each zodiacal sign into twelve segments.[49]
- ^ Fixed circle of the observer: the "imagined circle around the observer, defined by the four cardinal points, through which the zodiac and the planets turn".[53]
- ^ Dodecatropos: "'(System of) twelve units': the division of the fixed circle of the observer into twelve places [i.e. houses] ... each of which governs a particular aspect of life."[53]
- ^ Lots: "Points on the birth chart that carry special significance. In Manilius['s poem], the lots ... are 30° divisions of the zodiac, whose position on the zodiac change with time according to the position of the [Sun and Moon]."[53]
- ^ Birth chart: the specific arrangement of celestial bodies that occur the moment that a person is born. The terms "nativity" and "horoscope" are sometimes used in place of "birth chart".[60]
- ^ Ascendant: the "point of the zodiac that is rising over the horizon in the east".[60] It is also sometimes called the horoscopus.[60]
- ^ Chronocrators: the "celestial features ... that govern individual sections of a person's life".[60]
- ^ Tropic signs: Cancer, Capricorn, Aries and Libra; they "house the solstices and equinoxes".[68] They are called "tropic signs" because "they (or at any rate Cancer and Capricorn) constitute the turning points of the sun's annual course".[68]
- ^ Decans: divisions of the zodiac that measure ten degrees; each zodiac sign is composed of and governs three decans.[53]
- ^ Partes damnandae: Latin for the "degrees to be rejected"; this phrase represents certain degrees of the zodiac signs that are considered harmful or bad.[73]
- ^ Zodiacal geography: the allotment of specific countries, regions, or division of lands to the rule of specific zodiac signs.[44]
- ^ Ecliptic signs: signs of the zodiac in which either the sun or the moon is to be found during an eclipse.[53]
- ^ Paranatellonta: "constellations, parts thereof ... or especially bright individual stars, which become visible or invisible at the same time as certain degrees or decanal sections ... of the ecliptic".[79]
Notes
- ^ Though, as explained by Katharina Volk, "in histories of Latin literature, Manilius is typically treated under the rubric of didactic poetry",[1] there has been much debate as to whether the Astronomica should be categorized as an "epic poem" or as a "didactic poem".[2] Several sources refer to this work simply as an epic; for instance, Alison Keith writes in her book A Latin Epic Reader: Selections from Ten Epics, that "Manilius is the earliest exponent of imperial epic with his Astronomica",[3] and Anthony Grafton, Glenn W. Most, and Salvatore Settis note in The Classical Tradition that "the earliest complete astrological text we possess from antiquity is Manilius's Latin epic the Astronomica (ca. 25 CE)".[4] Other sources simply refer to the Astronomica as a "didactic poem", such as the Loeb Classical Library webpage for G. P. Goold's 1977 translation.[5] According to Victoria Moul, "there is very little acknowledgement in either ancient or early modern criticism of didactic as a genre of its own, rather than a form of epic".[6] Volk likewise writes that "didactic poems [e.g. De natura rerum and Astronomica] ... were often regarded as (some kind of) epic poetry".[7] At the same time, Volk stresses that "there are ... such crucial differences between didactic poetry and narrative epic that it makes sense to consider the former a genre in its own right."[7]
- ^ In the manuscript of the poem known as M, the author is identified three times in the genitive, as "M[arcus]. Manili", "M. Manlii", and "M. Milnili"; "Manlii" and "Milnili" are likely both corruptions of the nomen "Manlii", making the author's name "Marcus Manlius" ("Marci Manlii" in the genitive).[10]
- ^ This is based on the facts that the first book mentions the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (suggesting an Augustan date), the second claims that Capricorn is the Emperor's natal sign (indicating this book was written under Augustus), and the fourth describes Libra as the natal sign of the leader (suggesting that this book was written under Tiberius). Books three and five are difficult to date, but book five is assumed to have been written under Tiberius because it followed the (Tiberian) book four.[12]
- ^ Volk writes that Manilius is unclear as to how the deity, the universe, and reason are all connected to one another.[28] Manilius occasionally treats these key terms as distinct concepts and at other times like synonyms for one another, further complicating the meaning of their use.[29]
- ^ Including that the Milky Way band is: the place in the sky where the two hemispheres are merging or diverging; a path the Sun once took; the route Phaethon took when he drove Helios's sun chariot; milk from Juno's breast; or a cluster of small stars.[33][34]
- ^ At lines 218–24, Manilius describes a "vulgar" method for calculating the ascendant, which—according to Pierre Brind'Amour—he calls a "dubious computation" (dubia ... ratione).[61][62] In lines 225–482 feature Manilius objects to the vulgar method, explaining "how latitude affects the length of the days in the various seasons and the rising time of the signs", provides a proper scheme to calculate the ascendant, and explains "a method by which the length of the days throughout the year can be computed for any specific location".[63] Starting at line 483 and ending at line 509, "something very peculiar happens. The poet suddenly announces another method for computing the Ascendant, and what he proceeds to expound ... is exactly the same vulgar method which he had previously described and condemned."[64] Some scholars, like A. E. Housman, G. P. Goold, and Auguste Bouché-Leclercq say Manilius simply made an error, whereas Pierre Brind'Amour says lines 483–509 are spurious.[64]
- ^ In 1903, Housman said that the modern version of the Astronomica depended on four manuscripts: G, L, M, and V.[138] He originally proposed that V—much like M—was a descendant of manuscript β (the manuscript first discovered by the Italian humanist and scholar Poggio Bracciolini in the early fifteenth century), but in 1930 he redacted this hypothesis, calling V instead one of the many "scions of M".[138][139]
- ^ Bracciolini wrote that the scribe was ignorantissimus omnium viventium ("the most ignorant thing alive").[138]
References
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 174.
- ^ Campbell (2004), p. 209.
- ^ a b c Keith (2013), p. xix.
- ^ Anthony, Most, & Settis (2010), p. 85.
- ^ a b c d e "Astronomica – Manilius". Harvard University Press. Retrieved May 17, 2016.
- ^ Moul 2017.
- ^ a b Volk (2009), p. 179.
- ^ a b c d e Volk (2009), p. 1.
- ^ a b c d e f Chisholm (1911), pp. 580–81.
- ^ Gain (1970), p. 130.
- ^ Volk (2009), pp. 2, 4.
- ^ a b Goold (1997) [1977], p. xii.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 162.
- ^ a b c Brock (1911), p. 180.
- ^ Volk (2009), pp. 162–63.
- ^ a b Volk (2009), p. 138.
- ^ Volk (2009), pp. 138–39.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 139.
- ^ a b c d e f Volk (2009), p. 5.
- ^ Volk (2011), p. 6.
- ^ a b Goold (1997) [1977], p. xvii.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 1.118–254.
- ^ Goold (1997) [1977], pp. xviii, xx.
- ^ a b c d e Volk (2009), p. 266.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 25.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 31.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 1.251.
- ^ a b c Volk (2009), p. 34.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 61, note 8.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 1.255–560.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 1.561–804.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 1.684–804.
- ^ a b Manilius, Astronomica, 1.718–761.
- ^ a b Goold (1997) [1977], p. xxxv.
- ^ Manilius & Goold (1997) [1977], p. 3.
- ^ Heilen (2011), p. 282.
- ^ Volk (2009), pp. 266–67.
- ^ a b Volk (2014), p. 95.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 2.50, 2.53–54.
- ^ Volk (2010), pp. 187–88.
- ^ Volk (2003), p. 628.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 2.60–149.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Volk (2009), pp. 267–68.
- ^ a b Volk (2009), p. 274.
- ^ ISBN 978-0199265220.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 2.150–269.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 2.270–692.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 2.433–65.
- ^ Goold (1997) [1977], p. li.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 2.693–749.
- ^ Goold (1997) [1977], pp. xxxviii–liv.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 2.750–87.
- ^ a b c d e f Volk (2003), p. 272.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 2.788–970.
- ^ a b c Volk (2009), p. 268.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 2.856–970.
- ^ a b c Manilius & Goold (1997) [1977], p. 161.
- ^ a b c Goold (1997) [1977], p. lxii.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 3.43–202.
- ^ a b c d Volk (2009), p. 271.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 3.389.
- ^ Brind'Amour (1983), p. 144.
- ^ Brind'Amour (1983), pp. 144–45.
- ^ a b Brind'Amour (1983), p. 148.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 3.203–509.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 3.510–59.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 3.560–617.
- ^ a b Volk (2009), p. 94.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 3.618–82.
- ^ Green (2014), p. 57.
- ^ Goold (1997) [1977], p. lxxxiv.
- ^ a b Manilius, Astronomica, 4.294–386.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 273.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 4.308–501.
- ^ a b Manilius & Goold (1997) [1977], p. 221.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 4.502–817.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 4.818–65.
- ^ a b Volk (2009), p. 269.
- ^ Hübner (2006).
- ^ a b Manilius, Astronomica, 5.538–618.
- ^ a b c Green (2014), p. 46.
- ^ Manilius & Housman (1930), p. 70.
- ^ a b Verrall (1913), p. 630.
- ^ Volk (2009), pp. 109–10.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 270.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 110.
- ^ a b c Volk (2009), p. 217.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 1.484–85.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 1.531.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 218.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 219.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 220.
- ^ Volk (2009), pp. 234–51.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 226.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 227.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 227–30.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 228.
- ^ a b MacGregor (2005), p. 41.
- ^ a b Volk (2009), p. 226, note 13.
- ^ a b MacGregor (2005), p. 65.
- ^ MacGregor (2005), pp. 47–49.
- ^ MacGregor (2005), p. 51.
- ^ MacGregor 2005, p. 52.
- ^ MacGregor (2005), p. 53.
- ^ a b MacGregor (2005), p. 54.
- ^ a b MacGregor (2005), p. 56.
- ^ MacGregor (2005), p. 57–59.
- ^ MacGregor (2005), p. 59–65.
- ^ MacGregor (2005), p. 57.
- ^ Manilius & Housman (1920), p. 51.
- ^ Housman (1916), p. xix.
- ^ Housman (1903), p. xxi.
- ^ Hatch (2007), p. 735.
- ^ Wilfrid (1928), p. 73.
- ^ a b c d e Green (2014), p. 56.
- ^ Stark (2011), p. 267.
- ^ Pingree (1980), p. 263.
- ^ a b Housman (1903), p. lxxii.
- ^ Goold (1997) [1977], p. xiv.
- ^ a b c d e Goold (1997) [1977], p. cviii.
- ^ Goold (1997) [1977], p. xi.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 120, note 138.
- ^ a b Volk (2009), p. 192.
- ^ a b Steele (1932), p. 325.
- ^ Butterfield (2013), p. 48, note 9.
- ^ Steele (1932), p. 326.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 2.107–08.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 184.
- ^ Volk (2014), p. 106.
- ^ Abry (2007), pp. 1, 8–9.
- ^ Abry (2007), p. 2, note 5.
- ^ a b Volk (2009), p. 189, note 29.
- ^ Gee (2013), p. 117.
- ^ a b c d Hübner (2012).
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 2.1, 2.11.
- ^ Steele (1932), p. 320.
- ^ Goold (1997) [1977], pp. 366, 369, 434.
- ^ a b c d e f Housman (1903), pp. vii–viii.
- ^ a b c d e Housman (1930), p. v.
- ^ a b c d Goold (1997) [1977], p. cvi.
- ^ Ellis (1904), p. 5.
- ^ Housman (1930), pp. v–vi.
- ^ Housman (1930), p. xi.
- ^ Asso 2003.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 2.
- ^ Housman (1903), p. xii.
- ^ a b Ellis (1904), p. 2.
- ^ a b c d e Volk (2009), p. 3.
- ^ Housman (1903), p. xiii.
- ^ Ellis (1904), p. 3.
- ^ Garrod (1933), p. 26.
- ^ Goold (1997) [1977], p. cx.
- ^ Bailey (1979), p. 158.
- ^ Goold (1997) [1977], p. cxv.
- ^ Green & Volk (2011), p. viii.
- ^ Goold (1997) [1977], pp. ix–x.
- ^ Volk (2011), p. 9.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 124.
- ^ a b Volk (2009), p. 62, note 10.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. 1, note 1.
- ^ Manilius, Astronomica, 4.16.
- ^ Volk (2009), pp. 1–2.
- ^ Heilen (2011), p. 278.
- ^ Heilen (2011), pp. 278–310.
- ^ a b Volk (2011), p. 1.
- ^ Volk (2009), p. vii.
- ^ Volk (2002), p. 197.
- ^ Haugen (2011), p. 213.
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External links
- Latin copies
- Translations
- Thomas Creech's 1697 English verse translation via Google Books
- Chinese in Simplified Characters translation via douban.com
- Secondary material
- Richard Bentley's 1739 commentary via The Internet Archive
- Index of critical editions Archived October 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine via Hellenistic Astrology
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 580–581.