Astrophysical maser
An astrophysical maser is a naturally occurring source of
Background
Discrete transition energy
Like a
Nomenclature
Due to the differences between engineered and naturally occurring masers, it is often stated[1] that astrophysical masers are not "true" masers because they lack oscillation cavities. However, the distinction between oscillator-based lasers and single-pass lasers was intentionally disregarded by the laser community in the early years of the technology.[2]
This fundamental incongruency in language has resulted in the use of other paradoxical definitions in the field. For example, if the gain medium of a misaligned laser is emission-seeded but non-oscillating radiation, it is said to emit
Furthermore, the practical limits of the use of the m to stand for microwave in maser are variously employed. For example, when lasers were initially developed in the visible portion of the spectrum, they were called optical masers.
The term taser has been used to describe laboratory masers in the
Astrophysical conditions
The simple existence of a pumped population inversion is not sufficient for the observation of a maser. For example, there must be velocity coherence (light) along the line of sight so that
The radiation from astrophysical masers can be quite weak and may escape detection due to the limited sensitivity, and relative remoteness, of astronomical observatories and due to the sometimes overwhelming spectral absorption from unpumped molecules of the maser species in the surrounding space. This latter obstacle may be partially surmounted through the judicious use of the spatial filtering inherent in
The study of masers provides valuable information on the conditions—temperature, density, magnetic field, and velocity—in environments of
leading to refinements in existing theoretical models.Discovery
Historical background
In 1965 an unexpected discovery was made by Weaver et al.:[3] emission lines in space, of unknown origin, at a frequency of 1665 MHz. At this time many researchers still thought that molecules could not exist in space, even though they had been discovered by McKellar in the 1940s, and so the emission was at first attributed to a hypothetical form of interstellar matter named "mysterium", but the emission was soon identified as line emission from hydroxide molecules in compact sources within molecular clouds.[4] More discoveries followed, with water emission in 1969,[5] methanol emission in 1970,[6] and silicon monoxide emission in 1974,[7] all emanating from within molecular clouds. These were termed masers, as from their narrow line widths and high effective temperatures it became clear that these sources were amplifying microwave radiation.[citation needed]
Masers were then discovered around highly evolved
Another unexpected discovery was made in 1982 with the discovery of emission from an extra-galactic source with an unrivalled luminosity about 106 times larger than any previous source.[12] This was termed a megamaser because of its great luminosity; many more megamasers have since been discovered.[7]
A weak disk maser was discovered in 1995 emanating from the star MWC 349A, using NASA's Kuiper Airborne Observatory.[8]
Evidence for an anti-pumped (dasar) sub-thermal population in the 4830 MHz transition of formaldehyde (H2CO) was observed in 1969 by Palmer et al.[citation needed]
Detection
The connections of maser activity with far infrared (FIR) emission has been used to conduct searches of the sky with optical telescopes (because optical telescopes are easier to use for searches of this kind), and likely objects are then checked in the radio spectrum. Particularly targeted are molecular clouds, OH-IR stars, and FIR active galaxies.
Known interstellar species
The following species have been observed in stimulated emission from astronomical environments:[9]
- OH
- CH
- H2CO
- H2O
- NH3, 15NH3
- CH3OH
- HNCNH[10][11]
- SiS
- HC3N
- SiO, 29SiO, 30SiO
- HCN, H13CN
- H (in MWC 349)
- CS[12]
Characteristics of maser radiation
The amplification or gain of radiation passing through a maser cloud is exponential. This has consequences for the radiation it produces:
Beaming
Small path differences across the irregularly shaped maser cloud become greatly distorted by exponential gain. Part of the cloud that has a slightly longer path length than the rest will appear much brighter (as it is the exponent of the path length that is relevant), and so maser spots are typically much smaller than their parent clouds. The majority of the radiation will emerge along this line of greatest path length in a "beam"; this is termed beaming.
Rapid variability
As the gain of a maser depends exponentially on the population inversion and the velocity-coherent path length, any variation of either will itself result in exponential change of the maser output.
Line narrowing
Exponential gain also amplifies the centre of the line shape (Gaussian or Lorentzian, etc.) more than the edges or wings. This results in an emission line shape that is much taller but not much wider. This makes the line appear narrower relative to the unamplified line.
Saturation
The exponential growth in intensity of radiation passing through a maser cloud continues as long as pumping processes can maintain the population inversion against the growing losses by stimulated emission. While this is so the maser is said to be unsaturated. However, after a point, the population inversion cannot be maintained any longer and the maser becomes saturated. In a saturated maser, amplification of radiation depends linearly on the size of population inversion and the path length. Saturation of one transition in a maser can affect the degree of inversion in other transitions in the same maser, an effect known as competitive gain.
High brightness
The
Polarisation
An important aspect of maser study is
Many of the characteristics of megamaser emission are different.
Maser environments
Comets
Comets are small bodies (5 to 15 km diameter) of frozen volatiles (e.g., water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and methane) embedded in a crusty silicate filler that orbit the Sun in eccentric orbits. As they approach the Sun, the volatiles vaporise to form a halo and later a tail around the nucleus. Once vaporised, these molecules can form inversions and mase.[citation needed]
The impact of comet
Ultraviolet light from the Sun breaks down some water molecules to form
Planetary atmospheres
It is predicted that masers exist in the atmospheres of gas giant planets.[17] Such masers would be highly variable due to planetary rotation (10-hour period for Jovian planets). Cyclotron masers have been detected at the north pole of Jupiter.
Planetary systems
In 2009, S. V. Pogrebenko et al.[18] reported the detection of water masers in the plumes of water associated with the Saturnian moons Hyperion, Titan, Enceladus, and Atlas.
Stellar atmospheres
The conditions in the atmospheres of
Both radiative and collisional pumping resulting from the shockwave have been suggested as the pumping mechanism for the silicon monoxide masers.[20] These masers diminish for larger radii as the gaseous silicon monoxide condenses into dust, depleting the available maser molecules. For the water masers, the inner and outer radii limits roughly correspond to the density limits for maser operation. At the inner boundary, the collisions between molecules are enough to remove a population inversion. At the outer boundary, the density and optical depth is low enough that the gain of the maser is diminished. The hydroxyl masers are supported chemical pumping. At the distances where these masers are found water molecules are disassociated by UV radiation.
Star-forming regions
Supernova remnants
The 1720 MHz maser transition of hydroxide is known to be associated with
Extragalactic sources
While some of the masers in star forming regions can achieve luminosities sufficient for detection from external galaxies (such as the nearby
Ongoing research
Astronomical masers remain an active field of research in radio astronomy and laboratory astrophysics due, in part, to the fact that they are valuable diagnostic tools for astrophysical environments which may otherwise elude rigorous quantitative study and because they may facilitate the study of conditions which are inaccessible in terrestrial laboratories. A global collaboration called the Maser Monitoring Organisation, colloquially known as the M2O,[24] are one prominent group of researchers in this discipline.
Variability
Maser variability is generally understood to mean the change in apparent brightness to the observer. Intensity variations can occur on timescales from days to years indicating limits on maser size and excitation scheme. However, masers change in various ways over various timescales.
Distance determinations
Masers in star-forming regions are known to move across the sky along with the material that is flowing out from the forming star(s). Also, since the emission is a narrow spectral line, line-of-sight velocity can be determined from the
Open issues
Unlike terrestrial lasers and masers for which the excitation mechanism is known and engineered, the reverse is true for astrophysical masers. In general, astrophysical masers are discovered empirically then studied further in order to develop plausible suggestions about possible pumping schemes. Quantification of the transverse size, spatial and temporal variations, and polarisation state, typically requiring VLBI telemetry, are all useful in the development of a pump theory. Galactic formaldehyde masing is one such example that remains problematic.[27]
On the other hand, some masers have been predicted to occur theoretically but have yet to be observed in nature. For example, the magnetic dipole transitions of the OH molecule near 53 MHz are expected to occur but have yet to be observed, perhaps due to a lack of sensitive equipment.[28]
See also
- Interstellar medium – Matter and radiation in the space between the star systems in a galaxy
Notes
- ^ Weaver H., Dieter N.H., Williams D.R.W., Lum W.T. 1965 Nature 208 29–31
- ^ Davis R.D., Rowson B., Booth R.S., Cooper A.J., Gent H., Adgie R.L., Crowther J.H. 1967 Nature 213 1109–10
- ^ Cheung A.C., Rank D.M., Townes C.H., Thornton D.D., Welch W.J., Crowther J.H. 1969 Nature 221 626–8
- ^ Snyder L.E., Buhl D. 1974 Astrophys. J. 189 L31–33
- ^ Ball J.A., Gottlieb C.A., Lilley A.E., Radford H.E. 1970 Astrophys. J. 162 L203–10
- ^ Wilson W.J., Darrett A.H. 1968 Science 161 778–9
- ^ Knowles S.H., Mayer C.H., Cheung A.E., Rank D.M., Townes C.H. 1969 Science 163 1055–57
- ^ Buhl D., Snyder L.E., Lovas F.J., Johnson D.R. 1974 Astrophys. J. 192 L97–100
- ^ Whiteoak J.B., Gardner F.F. 1973 Astrophys. Lett. 15 211–5
- ^ Baan W.A., Wood P.A.D., Haschick A.D. 1982 Astrophys. J. 260 L49–52
- ^ Cohen R.J. Rep. Prog. Phys. 1989 52 881–943
- ^ Elitzur M. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1992 30 75–112
References
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- ^ Shepard, Lisa (July 2021). IDENTIFYING CIRCUMSTELLAR DUST AROUND OXYGEN-RICH MIRA VARIABLES WITH MASER EMISSION VIA CONTINUUM ELIMINATION (PDF) (Thesis). University of Missouri-Columbia.
- Bibcode:1995A&A...300..843T.
- ^ Lachowicz, Paweł (16 May 2007), Astrophysical masers (PDF), p. 10
- ^ McGuire et al. (2012), "Interstellar Carbodiimide (HNCNH) – A New Astronomical Detection from the GBT PRIMOS Survey via Maser Emission Features." The Astrophysical Journal Letters 758 (2): L33 arXiv:https://arxiv.org/abs/1209.1590
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