Cetacean surfacing behaviour
Cetacean surfacing behaviour is a grouping of movement types that
Cetacea is usually split into two suborders,
Although some behaviours such as spyhopping, logging and lobtailing occur in both groups, others such as bow riding or peduncle throws are exclusive to one or the other. It is these energetic behaviours that humans observe most frequently, which has resulted in a large amount of scientific literature on the subject and a popular tourism industry.
Travelling surface behaviour
Breaching and lunging
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Humpback whale spinner-breaching
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Dwarf sperm whale breaching
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Hector's Dolphins off Cloudy Bay, New Zealand
A breach or a lunge is a leap out of the water, also known as cresting. The distinction between the two is fairly arbitrary: cetacean researcher Hal Whitehead defines a breach as any leap in which at least 40% of the animal's body clears the water, and a lunge as a leap with less than 40% clearance.[2] Qualitatively, a breach is a genuine jump with an intent to clear the water, whereas a lunge is the result of a fast upward-sloping swim that has caused the whale to clear the surface of the water unintentionally. This latter "lunging" behaviour is often a result of feeding in rorquals.[3] The right, humpback, and sperm whales are the most widely observed jumpers. However other baleen whales such as fin, blue, minke, gray and sei whales also breach. Oceanic dolphins, including the orca, are very common breachers and are in fact capable of lifting themselves completely out of the water very easily, although there is little distinction between this and porpoising. Some non-cetacean marine creatures also exhibit breaching behavior, such as several shark species and rays of the genera Manta and Mobula.[4]
Two techniques are used by cetaceans in order to breach. The first method, most common in sperm and humpback whales, is conducted by swimming vertically upwards from depth, and heading straight out of the water.
Ultimately, the reasons for breaching are unknown; however, there is evidence to support a range of hypotheses. Whales are more likely to breach when they are in groups, suggesting that it is a non-verbal signal to other group members during social behaviour. Scientists have called this theory "honest signalling". The immense cloud of bubbles and underwater disturbance following a breach cannot be faked; neighbours then know a breach has taken place. A single breach costs a whale only about 0.075% of its total daily energy intake, but a long series of breaches may add up to a significant energy expenditure.[9] A breach is therefore a sign that the animal is physically fit enough to afford energy for this acrobatic display, hence it could be used for ascertaining dominance, courting or warning of danger.[5] It is also possible that the loud "smack" upon re-entering is useful for stunning or scaring prey, similar to lobtailing. As breaching is often seen in rough seas it is possible that a breach allows the whale to breathe in air that is not close to the surface and full of spray, or that they use breaching to communicate when the noise of the ocean would mask acoustic signals.[10] Another widely accepted possible reason is to dislodge parasites from the skin.[10] The behaviour may also be more simply a form of play.[10]
Porpoising
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Southern right whale dolphins porpoising
Porpoising, also known as running,
Although porpoising is a useful product of rapid swimming, much variation seen in the behaviour cannot be explained by this cause alone; it has likely evolved to provide other functions. For example, the rotation during porpoising by the
Wave or bow-riding and following vessels
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"Type B" orcas offSouth Georgia
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Belugas following watching boats in Churchill River
The term wave-riding is most commonly used to describe the surface activity of cetaceans that approach boats and jump repeatedly in the waves produced by the boats. This includes bow-riding, where cetaceans are in the pressure wave in front of the boat, and wake-riding, where they are off the stern in the wake.
Wave-riding is most common in small
Gallery
Stationary surface behaviour
Spyhopping
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Orca ("type C") spyhopping
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Southern minke whalespyhopping in Antarctica
When spyhopping, the whale rises and holds a vertical position partially out of the water, often exposing its entire rostrum and head. It is visually akin to a human treading water. Spyhopping is controlled and slow, and can last for minutes at a time if the whale is sufficiently inquisitive about whatever it is viewing. Generally, the whale does not appear to swim by fluke propulsion to maintain its "elevated" position while spyhopping, instead relying on exceptional buoyancy control and positioning with pectoral fins. Typically the whale's eyes will be slightly above or below the surface of the water, enabling it to see whatever is nearby on the surface.[29] Different species of sharks, including the great white shark and oceanic whitetip shark, have also been known to spyhop.[30][31]
Spyhopping often occurs during a "mugging" situation, where the focus of a whale's attention is on a boat, such as whale-watching tours, which they sometimes approach and interact with.[32] On the other hand, spyhopping among orcas is thought to aid predation, as they are often seen around ice floes attempting to view prey species such as seals that are resting on the floes.[33] When prey is detected the individual will conduct a series of spy-hops from different locations around it, then vocalise to the group members to do the same to possibly prepare for an attack.[33] In this instance a spyhop may be more useful than a breach, because the view is held steady for a longer period of time. Often when cetaceans breach, their eyes do not clear the water, which suggests it might not be used for looking but instead for hearing. For example, gray whales will often spy-hop in order to hear better when they are near the line where waves begin to break in the ocean as this marks out their migration route.[29] It can therefore be said that spy-hopping behaviour is used for many different reasons across a wide range of species.
Lobtailing and slapping
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Humpback whale lobtailing at Ísafjarðardjúp, Iceland
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Humpback whale tail-slapping off the coast of Molokai, Hawaii
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Humpback whale tail-slapping with California sea lions
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Bowhead whale tail-slapping in Shantar Islands
Lobtailing is the act of a whale or dolphin lifting its
The sound of a lobtail can be heard underwater several hundred metres from the site of a slap. This has led to speculation amongst scientists that lobtailing is, like breaching, a form of non-vocal communication. However, studies of
Gallery
- Whales with raised tail on Wikimedia Commons.
Peduncle throw
A
Pectoral slapping
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Southern right whale showing pectoral fins
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Humpback whales
Pectoral slapping, informally known as pec-slapping, is when a cetacean turns on its side, exposes one or both
Logging
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Southern right whales resting
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Bowhead whale sleeping
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Gray whale cavorting
Logging is a behaviour that whales exhibit when at rest and appear like "logs" at the surface.
Dive times
Time intervals between surfacing can vary depending on the species, surfacing style or the purpose of the dive; some species have been known to dive for up to 85 minutes at a time when hunting,[46] and dives in excess of three hours have been observed in Cuvier's beaked whale under extreme circumstances.[47]
Human interaction
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Humpback whale and kayakers off Avila Beach, California
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Humpback whales off Saint-Gilles, Réunion
See also
- Beached whale
- Tail-walking
References
- ^ [1][permanent dead link], FAO Marine Mammals of the World, Suborder Odontoceti.
- ^ Whitehead Lab, Publications List, retrieved 2015-05-25
- ^ Paul and Michael Albert (26 June 2005). "The Flying Mobulas of the Sea of Cortez". Archived from the original on 4 May 2013.
- ^ a b c The Dodo, This is how whales break through the surface of the water, archived from the original on 2015-05-25, retrieved 2015-05-25
- ^ Breaching, Conscious Breath Adventures, retrieved 2015-05-25
- ISBN 978-0-226-89517-8
- ^ "Whale Behaviour". Animal Corner. 26 February 2015.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-226-89517-8
- ^ a b c USCB ScienceLine, Why do whales and other sea mammals breach?
- ^ S2CID 4334691
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- ^ PMID 21680390
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- ^
- ^ [2], "Why do dolphins jump out of the water?", Dolphin World FAQ.
- ^ S2CID 4281153
- ^ Rafael Avitabile (10 September 2018). "Fishing charter crew captures orca pod playing in boat's wake". NBC News - San Diego. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
- ^ JSTOR 3535038
- ^ a b c Ritter, F. (2003), "Interactions of cetaceans with whale watching boats–implications for the management of whale watching tourism" (PDF), MEER EV, Berlin, Germany, archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-24
- ^ "La baleine s'amuse by Gilles Macé". PBase. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
- ^ 橘田佳音利 (7 March 2014). "クジラの大群". Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 24 September 2018 – via YouTube.
- ^ "Boná Island and Panama Canal, Panama". Expeditions.com. January 14, 2016.
- ^ "Bowriding Humpback Whales – Log Transcript". PBS. December 30, 2002.
- ^ "2 gray whales catch waves near Mission Beach". FOX5 San Diego. February 3, 2016.
- ^ a b Gray Whale Spyhop, National Geographic, archived from the original on 2015-05-25, retrieved 2015-05-25
- ^ Baldwin, Marc. "Elasmobranch Behaviour". Wildlife Online. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
- ^ Keartes, Sarah (October 5, 2016). "What is the shark-steps-on-Lego shark actually doing?". Earth Touch News. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
- PMID 12927738
- ^
- ^ S2CID 53270820
- ^ Dr Stavros Kaniklides, The effects of volcanic tsunamis on marine mammals, retrieved 2015-05-26
- doi:10.1111/mms.12374 – via ResearchGate.)
{{cite journal}}
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- ^ hdl:10125/7066
- ^ "North Atlantic right whale". Arkive. Archived from the original on 2008-12-08. Retrieved 2015-05-04.
- ^ Harris, Tom (13 July 2001), "How Whales Work", Howstuffworks, retrieved 2006-11-27
- ^ "Whales" Marine Discovery Centre, Henley Beach, S. A. (PDF), retrieved 2015-05-13
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- ^ "Why do the Humpback Whales visit Hervey Bay?" The Oceania Project, retrieved 2015-05-13
- ^ S2CID 34187605
- ^ "The Deepest Divers", Oceanus Magazine, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute.
- S2CID 221886321.
- ^ O'Connor, S.; Campbell, R.; Cortez, H.; Knowles, T. (2009), "Whale Watching Worldwide: tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding economic benefits: a special report from the International Fund for Animal Welfare, Yarmouth MA, USA.", Economists at Large, archived from the original on August 1, 2012
- ^ a b Gordon, J.; Leaper, R.; Hartley, F. G.; Chappell, O. (1992), "Effects of whale-watching vessels on the surface and underwater acoustic behaviour of sperm whales off Kaikoura, New Zealand." (PDF), Wellington, N.Z.: Head Office, Department of Conservation, retrieved 2015-05-20
- ^
- ^ doi:10.1139/z95-153
- doi:10.3354/esr00205
- ^ Barr, K.; Slooten, E. (1999), "Effects of tourism on dusky dolphins at Kaikoura." (PDF), Wellington: Department of Conservation, retrieved 2015-05-20
Further reading
- Würsig, B.; Dorsey, E.M.; Richardson, W.J.; Wells, R.S. (1989), "Feeding, aerial and play behaviour of the bowhead whale, Balaena mysticetus, summering in the Beaufort Sea" (PDF), Aquatic Mammals, 15 (1): 27–37