Blue whale
Blue whale | |
---|---|
Adult blue whale
(Balaenoptera musculus) | |
Size compared to an average human
| |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Artiodactyla |
Infraorder: | Cetacea |
Family: | Balaenopteridae |
Genus: | Balaenoptera |
Species: | B. musculus
|
Binomial name | |
Balaenoptera musculus | |
Subspecies | |
| |
Blue whale range (in blue) | |
Synonyms | |
|
The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is a marine mammal and a baleen whale. Reaching a maximum confirmed length of 29.9 meters (98 ft) and weighing up to 199 tonnes (196 long tons; 219 short tons), it is the largest animal known ever to have existed.[3][a] The blue whale's long and slender body can be of various shades of greyish-blue dorsally and somewhat lighter underneath. Four subspecies are recognized: B. m. musculus in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, B. m. intermedia in the Southern Ocean, B. m. brevicauda (the pygmy blue whale) in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean, and B. m. indica in the Northern Indian Ocean. There is also a population in the waters off Chile that may constitute a fifth subspecies.
In general, blue whale populations migrate between their summer feeding areas near the poles and their winter breeding grounds near the tropics. There is also evidence of year-round residencies, and partial or age/sex-based migration. Blue whales are filter feeders; their diet consists almost exclusively of krill. They are generally solitary or gather in small groups, and have no well-defined social structure other than mother–calf bonds. The fundamental frequency for blue whale vocalizations ranges from 8 to 25 Hz and the production of vocalizations may vary by region, season, behavior, and time of day. Orcas are their only natural predators.
The blue whale was once
Taxonomy
Nomenclature
The genus name,
Blue whales were referred to as "Sibbald's rorqual", after Robert Sibbald, who first described the species.
Evolution
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A phylogenetic tree of six baleen whale species[14] |
Blue whales are
Whole genome sequencing suggests that blue whales are most closely related to sei whales with gray whales as a sister group. This study also found significant gene flow between minke whales and the ancestors of the blue and sei whale. Blue whales also displayed high genetic diversity.[14]
Hybridization
Blue whales are known to
Two live blue-fin whale hybrids have since been documented in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Canada), and in the Azores (Portugal).[20] DNA tests done in Iceland on a blue whale killed in July 2018 by the Icelandic whaling company Hvalur hf, found that the whale was the offspring of a male fin whale and female blue whale;[21] however, the results are pending independent testing and verification of the samples. Because the International Whaling Commission classified blue whales as a "Protection Stock", trading their meat is illegal, and the kill is an infraction that must be reported.[22] Blue-fin hybrids have been detected from genetic analysis of whale meat samples taken from Japanese markets.[23] Blue-fin whale hybrids are capable of being fertile. Molecular tests on a 21-meter (70 ft) pregnant female whale caught off Iceland in 1986 found that it had a blue whale mother and a fin whale father, while its fetus was sired by a blue whale.[24]
In 2024, a genome analysis of North Atlantic blue whales found evidence that approximately 3.5% of the blue whales' genome was derived from hybridization with fin whales. The gene flow was determined to be unidirectional from fin to blue whales. Comparison with Antarctic blue whales showed that this hybridization began after the northern and southern populations had become separated. Despite their smaller size, fin whales have similar cruising and sprinting speeds to blue whales, which would allow fin males to complete courtship chases with blue females.[25]
There is a reference to a humpback–blue whale hybrid in the
Subspecies and stocks
At least four subspecies of blue whale are recognized, some of which are divided into population stocks or "management units".
- Northern subspecies (B. m. musculus)
- North Atlantic population – This population is mainly documented from New England along eastern Canada to Greenland, particularly in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, during summer though some individuals may remain there all year. They also aggregate near Iceland and have increased their presence in the Norwegian Sea. They are reported to migrate south to the West Indies, the Azores and northwest Africa.[27]
- Eastern North Pacific population – Whales in this region mostly feed off California's coast from summer to fall and then Oregon, Washington State, the Alaska Gyre and Aleutian Islands later in the fall. During winter and spring, blue whales migrate south to the waters of Mexico, mostly the Gulf of California, and the Costa Rica Dome, where they both feed and breed.[27]
- Central/Western Pacific population – This stock is documented around the Kamchatka Peninsula during the summer; some individuals may remain there year-round. They have been recorded wintering in Hawaiian waters, though some can be found in the Gulf of Alaska during fall and early winter.[27]
- Northern Indian Ocean subspecies (B. m. indica) – This subspecies can be found year-round in the northwestern Indian Ocean, though some individuals have recorded travelling to the Crozet Islands during between summer and fall.[27]
- Pygmy blue whale (B. m. brevicauda)
- Madagascar population – This population migrates between the Crozet Islands and Prince Edward Islands in the south were they feed, passing through the Mozambique Channel.[27]
- Australia/Indonesia population – Whales in this region appear to winter off Indonesia and migrate to their summer feeding grounds off the coast of Western Australia, with major concentrations at Perth Canyon and an area stretching from the Great Australian Bight and Bass Strait.[27]
- Eastern Australia/New Zealand population – This stock may reside in the Tasman Sea and the Lau Basin in winter and feed mostly in the South Taranaki Bight and off the coast of eastern North Island. Blue whales have been detected around New Zealand throughout the year.[27]
- Madagascar population – This population migrates between the
- Antarctic subspecies (B. m. intermedia) – This subspecies includes all populations found around the Antarctic. They have been recorded to travel as far north as eastern tropical Pacific, the central Indian Ocean, and the waters of southwestern Australia and northern New Zealand.[27]
Blue whales off the
Description
The blue whale is a slender-bodied cetacean with a broad U-shaped head; thin, elongated
Size
The blue whale is the largest animal known ever to have existed.
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) whaling database reports 88 individuals longer than 30 meters (98 ft), including one of 33 meters (108 ft), but problems with how the measurements were taken suggest that any longer than 30.5 meters (100 ft) are suspect.[44] The Discovery Committee reported lengths up to 31 meters (102 ft);[45] however, the longest scientifically measured individual blue whale was 30 meters (98 ft) from rostrum tip to tail notch.[46] Female blue whales are larger than males.[13][47] Hydrodynamic models suggest a blue whale could not exceed 108 ft (33 m) because of metabolic and energy constraints.[48]
The average length of sexually mature female blue whales is 22.0 meters (72.1 ft) for Eastern North Pacific blue whales, 24 meters (79 ft) for central and western North
In the Northern Hemisphere, males weigh an average 100 metric tons (220,000 lb) and females 112 metric tons (247,000 lb). Eastern North
In 2024, Motani and Pyenson calculated the body mass of blue whales at different lengths, compiling records of their sizes from previous academic literatures and using regression analyses and volumetric analyses: a 25 metres (82 ft) long individual was estimated to weigh approximately 101–119 tonnes (111–131 short tons), while a 30 metres (98 ft) long individual was estimated to weigh approximately 184–205 tonnes (203–226 short tons). Considering that the largest blue whale was indeed 33 metres (108 ft) long, they estimated that a blue whale of such length would have weighed approximately 252–273 tonnes (278–301 short tons).[5]
Life span
Blue whales live around 80–90 years or more.
Behaviour and ecology
The blue whale is usually solitary, but can be found in pairs. When productivity is high enough, blue whales can be seen in gatherings of more than 50 individuals.[13] Populations may go on long migrations, traveling to their summer feeding grounds towards the poles and then heading to their winter breeding grounds in more equatorial waters.[62] The animals appear to use memory to locate the best feeding areas.[63] There is evidence of alternative strategies, such as year-round residency, and partial (where only some individuals migrate) or age/sex-based migration. Some whales have been recorded feeding in breeding grounds.[64] The traveling speed for blue whales ranges 5–30 kilometers per hour (3.1–18.6 mph).[13] Their massive size limits their ability to breach.[65]
The greatest dive depth reported from tagged blue whales was 315 meters (1,033 ft).[66] Their theoretical aerobic dive limit was estimated at 31.2 minutes,[67] however, the longest dive measured was 15.2 minutes.[66] The deepest confirmed dive from a pygmy blue whale was 506 meters (1,660 ft).[68] A blue whale's heart rate can drop to 2 beats per minute (bpm) at deep depths, but upon surfacing, can rise to 37 bpm, which is close to its peak heart rate.[69]
Diet and feeding
The blue whale's diet consists almost exclusively of krill.[13] Blue whales capture krill through lunge feeding; they swim towards them at high speeds as they open their mouths up to 80°.[13][66] They may engulf 220 metric tons (220 long tons; 240 short tons) of water at one time.[70] They squeeze the water out through their baleen plates with pressure from the throat pouch and tongue, and swallow the remaining krill.[13][66] Blue whales have been recorded making 180° rolls during lunge-feeding, possibly allowing them to search the prey field and find the densest patches.[71]
While pursuing krill patches, blue whales maximize their calorie intake by increasing the number of lunges while selecting the thickest patches. This provides them enough energy for everyday activities while storing additional energy necessary for migration and reproduction. Blue whales have to engulf densities greater than 100 krill/m³ to maintain the cost of lunge feeding.[66][72] They can consume 34,776–1,912,680 kilojoules (8,312–457,141 kcal) from one mouthful of krill, which can provide up to 240 times more energy than used in a single lunge.[66] It is estimated that an average-sized blue whale must consume 1,120 ± 359 kilograms (2,469 ± 791 lb) of krill a day.[73][74]
Blue whales appear to avoid directly competing with other baleen whales.[75][76][77] Different whale species select different feeding spaces and times as well as different prey species.[70][78][79] In the Southern Ocean, baleen whales appear to feed on Antarctic krill of different sizes, which may lessen competition between them.[80]
Reproduction and birth
Blue whales generally reach sexual maturity at 8–10 years. In the Northern Hemisphere, the length at which they reach maturity is 21–23 meters (69–75 ft) for females and 20–21 meters (66–69 ft) for males. In the Southern Hemisphere, the length of maturity is 23–24 meters (75–79 ft) and 22 meters (72 ft) for females and males respectively.[81] Male pygmy blue whales average 18.7 meters (61.4 ft) at sexual maturity.[82][83] Female pygmy blue whales are 21.0–21.7 meters (68.9–71.2 ft) in length[49] and roughly 10 years old at the age of sexual maturity.[49][50][84] Little is known about mating behavior, or breeding and birthing areas.[42][81] Blue whales appear to be polygynous, with males competing for females.[81][85] A male blue whale typically trails a female and will fight off potential rivals.[86] The species mates from fall to winter.[42][81]
Pregnant females eat roughly four percent of their body weight daily,
Vocalizations
Blue whales produce some of the loudest and lowest frequency vocalizations in the animal kingdom,[27] and their inner ears appear well adapted for detecting low-frequency sounds.[91] The fundamental frequency for blue whale vocalizations ranges from 8 to 25 Hz.[92] Blue whale songs vary between populations.[93]
Vocalizations produced by the Eastern North Pacific population have been well studied. This population produces pulsed calls ("A") and tonal calls ("B"), upswept tones that precede type B calls ("C") and separate downswept tones ("D").[94][95] A and B calls are often produced in repeated co-occurring sequences and sung only by males, suggesting a reproductive function.[95][96] D calls may have multiple functions. They are produced by both sexes during social interactions while feeding.[96][97] and by males when competing for mates.[86]
Blue whale calls recorded off Sri Lanka have a three‐unit phrase. The first unit is a 19.8 to 43.5 Hz pulsive call, and is normally 17.9 ± 5.2 seconds long. The second unit is a 55.9 to 72.4 Hz FM upsweep that is 13.8 ± 1.1 seconds long. The final unit is 28.5 ± 1.6 seconds long with a tone of 108 to 104.7 Hz.[98] A blue whale call recorded off Madagascar, a two‐unit phrase,[99] consists of 5–7 pulses with a center frequency of 35.1 ± 0.7 Hz lasting 4.4 ± 0.5 seconds proceeding a 35 ± 0 Hz tone that is 10.9 ± 1.1 seconds long.[98] In the Southern Ocean, blue whales produce 18-second vocals which start with a 9-second-long, 27 Hz tone, and then a 1-second downsweep to 19 Hz, followed by a downsweep further to 18 Hz.[100][101] Other vocalizations include 1–4 second long, frequency-modulated calls with a frequency of 80 and 38 Hz.[101][102]
There is evidence that some blue whale songs have temporally declined in tonal frequency.[103][104][105] The vocalization of blue whales in the Eastern North Pacific decreased in tonal frequency by 31% from the early 1960s to the early 21st century.[103][104] The frequency of pygmy blue whales in the Antarctic has decreased by a few tenths of a hertz every year starting in 2002.[105] It is possible that as blue whale populations recover from whaling, there is increasing sexual selection pressure (i.e., a lower frequency indicates a larger body size).[104]
Predators and parasites
The only known natural predator to blue whales is the
In Antarctic waters, blue whales accumulate diatoms of the species
Conservation
The global blue whale population is estimated to be 5,000–15,000 mature individuals and 10,000–25,000 total as of 2018. By comparison, there were at least 140,000 mature whales in 1926. There are an estimated total of 1,000–3,000 whales in the North Atlantic, 3,000–5,000 in the North Pacific, and 5,000–8,000 in the Antarctic. There are possibly 1,000–3,000 whales in the eastern South Pacific while the pygmy blue whale may number 2,000–5,000 individuals.
Blue whales are formally classified as
Threats
Blue whales were initially difficult to hunt because of their size and speed.[27] This began to change in the mid-19th century with the development of harpoons that can be shot as projectiles.[124] Blue whale whaling peaked between 1930 and 1931 with 30,000 animals taken. Harvesting of the species was particularly high in the Antarctic, with 350,000–360,000 whales taken in the first half of the 20th century. In addition, 11,000 North Atlantic whales (mostly around Iceland) and 9,500 North Pacific whales were killed during the same period.[81] The International Whaling Commission banned all hunting of blue whales in 1966 and gave them worldwide protection.[125] However, the Soviet Union continued to illegally hunt blue whales and other species up until the 1970s.[126]
Increasing
The potential impacts of
See also
Note
References
- ^ .
- ^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
- ^ Zimmer, Carl (29 February 2024). "Researchers Dispute Claim That Ancient Whale Was Heaviest Animal Ever - A new study argues that Perucetus, an ancient whale species, was certainly big, but not as big as today's blue whales". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
- ^ S2CID 260433513.
- ^ PMC 10909350.
- ^ S2CID 259782734.
- ^ Knopf. pp. 234–237.
- ^ a b c d e Calambokidis, J.; Steiger, G. H. (1997). Blue Whales. McGregor, MN: Voyager Press. p. 72.
- ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Stockholm, Holmia: Laurentius Salvius. p. 824.
- ^ a b Sibbald, Robert (1692). "Phalainologia Nova". Blue Whale ("Balaenoptera Musculus"): 675–678.
- ^ Bortolotti, D. (2008). Wild Blue: A Natural History of the World's Largest Animal. New York: St. Martin's Press.
- ^ a b Melville, H. (1851). Moby-Dick. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 398.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Sears, R.; Perrin, W. F. (2009). "Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus)". In Perrin, W. F.; Würsig, B.; Thewissen, J. G. M. (eds.). Encyclopedia of marine mammals. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. pp. 120–124.
- ^ PMID 29632892.
- PMID 31039728.
- PMID 25948571.
- doi:10.3354/esr00891.
- ^ Doroshenko, V. N. (1970). "A whale with features of the fin and the blue whale". Izvestia TINRO. 70: 255–257.
- .
- ^ Berube, M.; Oosting, T.; Aguilar, A.; Berrow, S.; Hao, W.; Heide-Jørgensen, M. P.; Kovacs, K. M.; Landry, S.; Lydersen, C.; Martin, V.; Øien, N.; Panigada, S.; Prieto, R.; Ramp, C.; Robbins, J. (2017). Are the "Bastards" coming back? Molecular identification of live blue and fin whale hybrids in the North Atlantic ocean. 22nd Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals. Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
- ^ Kilvert, Nick (20 July 2018). "DNA test shows slaughtered blue whale is a hybrid, Iceland marine institute says". ABC. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
- ^ Fishman, Margie (19 July 2018). "Hybrid blue-fin whale is still protected". Animal Welfare Institute. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
- PMID 9768497.
- PMID 1679066.
- .
- PMID 16843014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Oliver, Chris W. (November 2020). Recovery Plan for the Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus) (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
- The Society for Marine Mammalogy. 13 November 2016. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
- S2CID 257136658.
- .
- .
- S2CID 206184206.
- ^ a b c d Leatherwood, S.; Caldwell, D. K.; Winn, H. E. (1976). "Whales, dolphins, and porpoises of the western North Atlantic". NOAA Technical Report NMFS Circular. 396: 176. Archived from the original on 20 July 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
- ^ Leatherwood, S.; Reeves, R. R.; Perrin, W. F.; Evans, W. E. (1982). "Whales, dolphins, and porpoises of the eastern North Pacific and adjacent Arctic waters: A guide to their identification". NOAA Technical Report NMFS Circular. 444: 245.
- Reports of the International Whaling Commission. 12: 335–342.
- S2CID 83527877.
- ^ Gendron, D.; De La Cruz, U.; Winn, H. E. (2012). "A new classification method to simplify blue whale photo-identification technique". Journal of Cetacean Research and Management. 13 (1): 79–84.
- ^ Scammon, C. M. (1874). The Marine Mammals of the Northwestern Coast of North America. New York: Dover.
- University of Wisconsin. Retrieved 3 October 2012.
- .
- ^ a b Lockyer, C. (1981). "Growth and energy budgets of large baleen whales from the southern hemisphere". FAO Fisheries Series (5) Mammals in the Seas. 3: 379–487.
- ^ a b c Mizroch, S. A.; Rice, D. W.; Breiwick, J. M. (1984). "The blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus". Marine Fisheries Review. 46: 15–19.
- .
- ^ PMID 25649000.
- S2CID 41590649.
- ^ Sears, R.; Calambokidis, J. (2002). Update COSEWIC status report on the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. p. 32.
- S2CID 25927323.
- PMID 23024769.
- ^ .
- ^ S2CID 256926335.
- .
- ^ "See the world's biggest heart". Archived from the original on 16 September 2020. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
- ^ "Assessment and Update Status Report on the Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus" (PDF). Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. 2002. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
- PMID 25649000.
- ^ a b "Blue whale". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 7 June 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
- ^ Purves, P. E. (1955). "The wax plug in the external auditory meatus of the". Discovery Reports. 27: 259–273.
- .
- ^ Lockyer, C. (1984). "Age Determination by means of the ear plug in baleen whales". Report of the International Whaling Commission. 34: 692–696.
- ^ "Blue whale". Whale and Dolphin Conservation. Archived from the original on 3 March 2023. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
- ^ a b c Branch, T. A. (2008). "Biological parameters for pygmy blue whales". International Whaling Commission Document. SC/60/SH6: 13.
- ^ Perrin, W. F.; Donovan, G. P. (1984). "Report of the Workshop". In Perrin, W. F.; Donovan, G. P.; DeMaster, D. P. (eds.). Reproduction in whales, dolphin and porpoises. Cambridge, UK: International Whaling Commission.
- ^ a b "Blue Whale". NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
- PMID 30804188.
- .
- PMID 32159511.
- ^ PMID 21147977.
- PMID 11440866.
- .
- PMID 31767746.
- ^ PMID 29152200.
- PMID 23193050.
- PMID 26601290.
- JSTOR 1935307.
- ^ Croll, D. A.; Kudela, R.; Tershy, B. R. (2006). "Ecosystem impact of the decline of large whales in the North Pacific". In Estes, J. A. (ed.). Whales, Whaling and Ocean Ecosystems. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 202–214.
- S2CID 18542809.
- S2CID 86353285.
- PMID 4525324.
- ^ Doniol-Valcroze, T. (2008). Habitat selection and niche characteristics of rorqual whales in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence (Canada) (PhD). Montreal, Canada: McGill University.
- .
- .
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Sears, R.; Perrin, W. F. (2018). "Blue Whale: "Balaenoptera musculus"". In Würsig, B.; Thewissen, J. G. M.; Kovacs, K. M. (eds.). Encyclopedia of marine mammals. London, UK: Academic Press. pp. 110–114.
- ^ Ichihara T. (1964). "The pygmy blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda, a new subspecies from Antarctic". Norsk. Hvalf. Tid. 6.
- ^ Sazhinov E. G. (1970). "The onset of sexual and physical maturity for pygmy blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda. Ichinara. 1966)". Whales of the Southern Hemisphere (29): 34–40.
- .
- doi:10.3354/esr00532.
- ^ hdl:1912/24953.
- ^ Sergeant, D. E. (1969). "Feeding rates of Cetacea". Fiskeridir. SKR. Havundersok. 15: 246–258.
- ^ Lockyer, C. (1984). "Review of baleen whale (Mysticeti) reproduction and implications for management". Report of the International Whaling Commission. 6: 27–50.
- S2CID 19588882.
- ^ "Exclusive Video May Show Blue Whale Calf Nursing". National Geographic. 2 March 2016. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
- S2CID 85314872.
- PMID 9857519.
- S2CID 18769917.
- ^ Aroyan, J. L.; McDonald, M. A.; Webb, S. C.; Hildebrand, J. A.; Clark, D. S.; Laitman, J. T.; Reidenberg, J. S. (2000). "Acoustic models of sound production and propagation". In Au, W. W. A.; Popper, A.; Fay, R. N. (eds.). Hearing by whales and dolphins. New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 442.
- ^ PMID 11325141.
- ^ .
- PMID 30225013.
- ^ .
- ^ Ljungblad, D. K.; Clark, C. W.; Shimada, H. (1998). A comparison of sounds attributed to pygmy blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda) recorded south of the Madagascar Plateau and those attributed to 'true' blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) recorded off Antarctica (Report). Vol. 48. International Whaling Commission. pp. 439–442.
- .
- ^ S2CID 43993242.
- S2CID 251277044.
- ^ a b Nieukirk, S. L.; Mellinger, D. K.; Hildebrand, J. A.; McDonald, M. A.; Dziak, R. P. (2005). Downward shift in the frequency of blue whale vocalizations. 16th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals. San Diego, CA. p. 205.
- ^ doi:10.3354/esr00217.
- ^ S2CID 135201588.
- ^ Sears, R. (1990). "The Cortez blues". Whalewatcher. 24: 12–15.
- hdl:1912/4520.
- Australian Zoologist. 10: 293–294.
- ^ Tarpy, C. (1979). "Killer whale attack!". National Geographic Magazine. 155: 542–545.
- .
- S2CID 257138804.
- ^ "Killer Whales Bully Lone Blue Whale in Rare Video". Live Science. 5 March 2014. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
- ^ "Killer Whales Attacked a Blue Whale—Here's the Surprising Reason Why". National Geographic. 25 May 2017. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
- S2CID 246167673.
- PMID 26835249.
- ^ Gambell, R. (1979). "The blue whale". Biologist. 26: 209–215.
- .
- ^ Sigurjónsson, J. (1988). "Operational factors of the Icelandic large whale fishery". Reports of the International Whaling Commission. 38: 327–333.
- U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. 2 June 1970. Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 24 December 2019.
- ^ "Appendices". Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. 26 November 2019. Retrieved 24 December 2019.
- ^ "Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals" (PDF). United Nations Environment Programme. 23 June 1979. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2019.
- PMID 23967221.
- ^ "Blue Whale". International Union for Conservation. 6 December 2018. Retrieved 24 December 2019.
- ISBN 9780786732005.
- ^ "Blue whale – Balaenoptera musculus". International Whaling Commission. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
- ^ Ivashchenko, Y.; Clapham, P. J.; Brownell, R. (2011). "Soviet Illegal Whaling: The Devil and the Details" (PDF). Marine Fisheries Review. 73 (1): 1–19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 26 January 2023.
- ^ S2CID 86304413.
- ^ Abramson, L.; Polefka, S.; Hastings, S.; Bor, K. (2009). Reducing the Threat of Ship Strikes on Large Cetaceans in the Santa Barbara Channel Region and Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary: Recommendations and Case Studies (Report). Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary Advisory Council. pp. 1–73.
- .
- ^ Priyadarshana, T.; Randage, R.; Alling, A.; Calderan, S.; Gordon, J.; Leaper, R.; Porter, L. (2015). An update on work related to ship strike risk to Blue whales off southern Sri Lanka (Report). Vol. SC66A. The International Whaling Commission.
- S2CID 46399716.
- ^ Brownell, R. L. Jr.; Cabrera, E.; Galletti-Vernazzani, B. (2014). Dead blue whale in Puerto Montt, Chile: Another case of ship collision mortality (Report). Vol. SC/65b/HIM08. International Whaling Commission.
- ^ International whaling Commission (2017). Report of the Scientific Committee (Report). International Whaling Commission. p. 136.
- S2CID 17833403.
- doi:10.3354/esr00627.
- ^ Carretta, J. V.; Muto, M. M.; Greenman, J.; Wilkinson, K.; Viezbicke, J.; Jannot, J. (2017). Sources of human-related injury and mortality for U.S. Pacific west coast marine mammal stock assessments, 2011– 2015 (Report). Vol. PSRG-2017-07. NOAA.
- ^ NMFS (2017). National Report on Large Whale Entanglements (Report). NOAA.
- ^ de Vos, A. (2015). "Marine life on the line". In Braun, D. (ed.). Deepwater Horizon oil spill: Final Programmatic Damage Assessment and Restoration Plan and Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement. National Geographic. p. 685.
- ^ Southall, B. L.; Hatch, L.; Scholik-Schlomer, A.; Bergmann, T.; Jasny, M.; Metcalf, K.; Weilgart, L.; Wright, A. J.; Perera, M. E. (2018). "Reducing noise from large commercial ships: progress and partnerships". Proc. Mar. Saf. Sec. Council. 1: 58–65.
- .
- S2CID 9474116.
- .
- ^ Di Iorio, L.; Clark, C. W. (2009). "Exposure to seismic survey alters blue whale acoustic communication". Biology Letters. 6 (1): 1–4.
- S2CID 3829165.
- PMID 22393434.
- PMID 30833464.
- PMID 7973606.
- PMID 24043814.
- PMID 14749058.
Further reading
- Calambokidis, J. & Steiger, G. (1998). Blue Whales. ISBN 978-0-89658-338-2.
- "Blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus". MarineBio.org. Retrieved 21 April 2006.
- NOAA Fisheries, Office of Protected Resources Blue whale biology & status
External links
- Blue whale vocalizations – Cornell Lab of Ornithology—Bioacoustics Research Program (archived 26 February 2015)
- Blue whale video clips and news from the BBC – BBC Wildlife Finder
- Voices in the Sea – Sounds of the Blue Whale
- NOAA Stock Assessments
- Life of a Hunter: Blue Whale Archived 31 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine – BBC America
- Living With Predators – BBC America