Great white shark
Great white shark Temporal range:
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Male off Isla Guadalupe, Mexico
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Size comparison with human | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Chondrichthyes |
Subclass: | Elasmobranchii |
Subdivision: | Selachimorpha |
Order: | Lamniformes |
Family: | Lamnidae |
Genus: | Carcharodon A. Smith, 1838 |
Species: | C. carcharias
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Binomial name | |
Carcharodon carcharias | |
Great white shark range according to the IUCN (2018)
Extant (resident)
Possibly extant (resident)
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Synonyms | |
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The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), also known as the white shark, white pointer, or simply great white, is a species of large mackerel shark which can be found in the coastal surface waters of all the major oceans. It is the only known surviving species of its genus Carcharodon. The great white shark is notable for its size, with the largest preserved female specimen measuring 5.83 m (19.1 ft) in length and around 2,000 kg (4,410 lb) in weight at maturity.[3] However, most are smaller; males measure 3.4 to 4.0 m (11 to 13 ft), and females measure 4.6 to 4.9 m (15 to 16 ft) on average.[4][5] According to a 2014 study, the lifespan of great white sharks is estimated to be as long as 70 years or more, well above previous estimates,[6] making it one of the longest lived cartilaginous fishes currently known.[7] According to the same study, male great white sharks take 26 years to reach sexual maturity, while the females take 33 years to be ready to produce offspring.[8] Great white sharks can swim at speeds of 25 km/h (16 mph)[9] for short bursts and to depths of 1,200 m (3,900 ft).[10]
The great white shark is arguably the world's largest-known extant macropredatory fish, and is one of the primary predators of marine mammals, such as pinnipeds and dolphins. The great white shark is also known to prey upon a variety of other animals, including fish, other sharks, and seabirds. It has only one recorded natural predator, the orca.[11]
The species faces numerous ecological challenges which has resulted in international protection. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the great white shark as a vulnerable species,[1] and it is included in Appendix II of CITES.[12] It is also protected by several national governments, such as Australia (as of 2018).[13] Due to their need to travel long distances for seasonal migration and extremely demanding diet, it is not logistically feasible to keep great white sharks in captivity; because of this, while attempts have been made to do so in the past, there are no known aquariums in the world believed to house a live specimen.[14]
The great white shark is depicted in popular culture as a ferocious man-eater, largely as a result of the novel Jaws by Peter Benchley and its subsequent film adaptation by Steven Spielberg. Humans are not a preferred prey,[15] but nevertheless it is responsible for the largest number of reported and identified fatal unprovoked shark attacks on humans.[16] However, attacks are rare, typically occurring fewer than 10 times per year globally.[17][18]
Taxonomy
The great white is the sole recognized extant species in the genus Carcharodon, and is one of five extant species belonging to the family Lamnidae.[19] Other members of this family include the mako sharks, porbeagle, and salmon shark. The family belongs to the Lamniformes, the order of mackerel sharks.[20]
Etymology and naming history
The
The scientific genus name Carcharodon literally means "jagged tooth", a reference to the large serrations that appear in the shark's teeth. It is a
There have been a few attempts to describe and classify the great white before Linnaeus. One of its earliest mentions in literature as a distinct type of animal appears in Pierre Belon's 1553 book De aquatilibus duo, cum eiconibus ad vivam ipsorum effigiem quoad ejus fieri potuit, ad amplissimum cardinalem Castilioneum. In it, he illustrated and described the shark under the name Canis carcharias based on the jagged nature of its teeth and its alleged similarities with dogs.[a] Another name used for the great white around this time was Lamia, first coined by Guillaume Rondelet in his 1554 book Libri de Piscibus Marinis, who also identified it as the fish that swallowed the prophet Jonah in biblical texts.[26] Linnaeus recognized both names as previous classifications.[24]
Fossil ancestry
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Phylogenetic relationship between the Great white shark and other sharks based on molecular data conducted by Human et al. (2006)[27] |
Molecular clock studies published between 1988 and 2002 determined the closest living relative of the great white to be the mako sharks of the genus Isurus, which diverged some time between 60 and 43 million years ago.[28][29] Tracing this evolutionary relationship through fossil evidence, however, remains subject to further paleontological study.[29]
The original hypothesis of the great white shark's origin held that it is a descendant of a lineage of
However, it is now understood that the great white shark holds closer ties to the mako sharks and is descended from a separate lineage as a
However, Yun argued that the tooth fossil remains of C. hastalis and Great White Shark "have been documented from the same deposits, hence the former cannot be a chronospecific ancestor of the latter." He also criticized that the C. hastalis "morphotype has never been tested through phylogenetic analyses," and denoted that as of 2021, the argument that the modern Carcharodon lineage with narrow, serrated teeth evolved from C. hastalis with a broad, unserrated teeth is uncertain.[39]
Tracing beyond C. hastalis, another prevailing hypothesis proposes that the great white and mako lineages shared a common ancestor in a primitive mako-like species.[40] The identity of this ancestor is still debated, but a potential species includes Isurolamna inflata, which lived between 65 and 55 million years ago. It is hypothesized that the great white and mako lineages split with the rise of two separate descendants, the one representing the great white shark lineage being Macrorhizodus praecursor.[40][41]
Distribution and habitat
Great white sharks live in almost all coastal and offshore waters which have water temperature between 12 and 24 °C (54 and 75 °F), with greater concentrations in the United States (
The great white is an
According to a recent study,
In the Northwest Atlantic, the white shark populations off the New England coast were nearly eradicated due to over-fishing.[49] In recent years, the populations have grown greatly,[50] largely due to the increase in seal populations on Cape Cod, Massachusetts since the enactment of the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972.[51] Currently very little is known about the hunting and movement patterns of great whites off Cape Cod, but ongoing studies hope to offer insight into this growing shark population.[52] The Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries (part of the Department of Fish and Game) began a population study in 2014; since 2019, this research has focused on how humans can avoid conflict with sharks.[53]
A 2018 study indicated that white sharks prefer to congregate deep in
Anatomy and appearance
The great white shark has a robust, large, conical snout. The upper and lower
Leucism is extremely rare in this species, but has been documented at least three times; in a pup that washed ashore in Australia and died,[55] in another pup in South Africa,[56] and a third six-metre adult male in Indonesia.[57] Great white sharks, like many other sharks, have rows of serrated teeth behind the main ones, ready to replace any that break off. When the shark bites, it shakes its head side-to-side, helping the teeth saw off large chunks of flesh.[58] Great white sharks, like other mackerel sharks, have larger eyes than other shark species in proportion to their body size. The iris of the eye is a deep blue instead of black.[59]
Size
In great white sharks,
A complete female great white shark specimen in the Museum of Zoology in Lausanne, and claimed by De Maddalena et al. (2003) as the largest preserved specimen, measured 5.83 m (19.1 ft) in total body length with the caudal fin in its depressed position, and is estimated to have weighed 2,000 kg (4,410 lb).[3] According to J. E. Randall, the largest white shark reliably measured was a 5.94 m (19.5 ft) specimen reported from Ledge Point, Western Australia in 1987,[66] but it is unclear whether that length was measured with the caudal fin in its depressed or natural position.[3] Another great white specimen of similar size was a female caught in August 1988 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, off Prince Edward Island, by David McKendrick of Alberton, Prince Edward Island. This female great white was 6.1 m (20 ft) long, as verified by the Canadian Shark Research Center.[4]
A report of a specimen reportedly measuring 6.4 m (21 ft) in length and with a body mass estimated at 3,175–3,324 kg (7,000–7,328 lb)[60][61][67] caught in 1945 off the coast of Cuba was at the time considered reliable by some experts.[61][68][67][69] However, later studies revealed this particular specimen to be around 4.9 m (16 ft) in length, i.e. a specimen within the typical maximum size range.[4]
The largest great white recognized by the International Game Fish Association (IGFA) is one caught by Alf Dean in southern Australian waters in 1959, weighing 1,208 kg (2,663 lb).[64]
Examples of large unconfirmed great whites
A number of very large unconfirmed great white shark specimens have been recorded.
While these measurements have not been confirmed, some great white sharks caught in modern times have been estimated to be more than 7 m (23 ft) long,
One contender in maximum size among the predatory sharks is the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier). While tiger sharks, which are typically both a few feet smaller and have a leaner, less heavy body structure than white sharks, have been confirmed to reach at least 5.5 m (18 ft) in the length, an unverified specimen was reported to have measured 7.4 m (24 ft) in length and weighed 3,110 kg (6,860 lb), more than two times heavier than the largest confirmed specimen at 1,524 kg (3,360 lb).[62][79][80] Some other macropredatory sharks such as the Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus) and the Pacific sleeper shark (S. pacificus) are also reported to rival these sharks in length (but probably weigh a bit less since they are more slender in build than a great white) in exceptional cases.[81][82]
Reported sizes
Date | Location | Reported length | Reported weight | DUJP | Reported tooth size | Scientifically analyzed length | Comments |
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May 22, 1989 | Ledge Point, Western Australia | 594.4 cm | 2,052.27 kg | 1,300 mm | 51 mm | 594.4 cm | Largest confirmed specimen per John. E. Randall[83] |
November, 2001 | East Sea, China | 602.0 cm | 2,460.00 kg | Not listed | Not listed | 602.0 cm | Verified by marine biologist Heather M Christianson[84] |
April 17, 1952 | Streaky Bay, Australia | 609.6 cm | 1,360.77 kg | Not available | Not available | Not available | Enormous white shark periodically hooked by several fisherman; hooked by Alf Dean but broke the line. Estimated to be easily 20 feet in length.[85] |
August 4, 1983 | Prince Edward Island, Canada | 609.6 cm | 2,213.78 kg | 1,430 mm | 47.5 mm | 609.6 cm | Verified by marine biologist Gordon Hubbell[86] |
October 13, 1956 | Maguelone, France | 589.0 cm | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Girth estimated at 400 cm[87] |
June 16, 1996 | Malindi, Kenya | 640.0 cm | 2,200.00 kg | Not listed | Not listed | 570.0 cm | Shark cut apart before it could be photographed and weighed in total |
May, 1945 | Cojimar, Cuba | 640.8 cm | 3,220.5 kg | Not listed | 44 mm | 633.13 cm | Estimated by John Randall to be 494.37 cm in length, revised upwards per analysis by Maddalena [88] |
May 14, 1997 | Hualien Country, Taiwan | 670.0 cm | 2,500 kg | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Only photo utilizes forced perspective, likely measurement was lower [89][84] |
April 1, 1987 | Kangaroo Island, South Australia | 700.0 cm | 2,500 kg | 1,250 mm | Not listed | 600 cm | Original length of 700 cm cannot be disregarded[90] |
April 17, 1987 | Filfla, Malta | 714.0 cm | 2,880 kg | 1,120 mm | 46.9 mm | 668 cm - 681 cm | Original reported length of 714 cm is possible [89][84] |
May 1978 | Azores | 900.0 cm | 4,546 kg | Not listed | 76.0 mm | 610 cm | Photos examined by John Randall[83] |
Undetermined | False Bay, South Africa | 1,310.64 cm | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Referred to by Lawrence G. Green in book [91] |
June 5, 1975 | Long Island, NY | 914.14 cm | Not listed | 762.00 mm | Not listed | Not listed | Sited by charter captain Paul Sundberg. Harpooned but broke away, left a 30 in lower bite mark in the bottom of his boat [92] |
June 1978 | Montauk Point | 762.00 cm | 1,360.78 kg | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Harpooned by charter captain John Sweetman, towed boat 30 miles before breaking free. Also spotted by charter captain Paul Sundberg and confirmed visually as a great white.[92][93] |
March 2008 | Sandun, China, March 2008 | 1,000.00 cm | 2,267.96 kg | Not listed | Not listed | 614.5 | Weight considered far too low for shark of that length, would have been 9,772.37 kg if size was accurate [83] |
Jan 17, 2019 | Hawaii | 609.6 cm | 2,267.96 kg | Not listed | Not listed | 609.6 cm | Deep Blue was spotted off of Mexico in 2013, and again off of Hawaii in 2019 [94][95] |
June 1930 | Grand Mahan | 1,127.76 cm | 2,267.96 kg | Not listed | Not listed | 517.6 cm - 812.5 cm | John Randall estimated 517 cm based on a 28 mm tooth; scaling size based on quantity of reported liver oil yielded gives larger estimate [96][97] |
November 6, 1987 | Cowes, Phillip Island, Victoria, Australia | 633 cm | 2,306.52 kg | Not listed | 50.8 mm | 633 cm | Stomach contained an entire seal. Teeth were 2 inches long.[98][99] |
Adaptations
Great white sharks, like all other sharks, have an extra sense given by the ampullae of Lorenzini which enables them to detect the electromagnetic field emitted by the movement of living animals. Great whites are so sensitive they can detect variations of half a billionth of a volt. At close range, this allows the shark to locate even immobile animals by detecting their heartbeat.[100] Most fish have a less-developed but similar sense using their body's lateral line.[101]
To more successfully hunt fast and agile prey such as sea lions, the great white has adapted to maintain a body temperature warmer than the surrounding water. One of these adaptations is a "
Toxicity from heavy metals seems to have little negative effects on great white sharks. Blood samples taken from forty-three individuals of varying size, age and sex off the South African coast led by biologists from the University of Miami in 2012 indicates that despite high levels of mercury, lead, and arsenic, there was no sign of raised white blood cell count and granulate to lymphocyte ratios, indicating the sharks had healthy immune systems. This discovery suggests a previously unknown physiological defence against heavy metal poisoning. Great whites are known to have a propensity for "self-healing and avoiding age-related ailments".[106]
Bite force
A 2007 study from the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, used CT scans of a shark's skull and computer models to measure the shark's maximum bite force. The study reveals the forces and behaviours its skull is adapted to handle and resolves competing theories about its feeding behaviour.[107] In 2008, a team of scientists led by Stephen Wroe conducted an experiment to determine the great white shark's jaw power and findings indicated that a specimen massing 3,324 kg (7,328 lb) could exert a bite force of 18,216 newtons (4,095 lbf).[67]
Ecology and behaviour
This shark's behaviour and social structure are complex. In South Africa, white sharks have a dominance hierarchy where an individual's rank is primarily established by their size, and to a lesser extent, their sex and "squatter's rights"; larger sharks dominate smaller sharks, females dominate males, and established residents dominate newcomers. When hunting, great whites tend to separate and resolve conflicts with rituals and displays. White sharks rarely resort to combat, although some individuals have been found with bite marks that match those of other white sharks. This suggests that when a great white approaches too closely to another, they react with a warning bite. Another possibility is that white sharks bite to show their dominance.[108] Data acquired from animal-borne telemetry receivers and published in 2022 via the journal Royal Society Publishing suggests that individual great whites may associate so that they can inadvertently share information on the whereabouts of prey or the location of the remains of animals that can be scavenged. As biologging can help to reveal social habits, it allows a better understanding to be made in future studies regarding the full extent of social interactions in large marine animals, including the great white shark.[109]
The great white shark is one of only a few sharks known to regularly lift its head above the sea surface to gaze at other objects such as prey. This is known as
Diet
Great white sharks are
Off Seal Island, False Bay in South Africa, the sharks ambush brown fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus) from below at high speeds, hitting the seal mid-body. They achieve high speeds that allow them to completely breach the surface of the water. The peak burst speed is estimated to be above 40 km/h (25 mph).[121] They have also been observed chasing prey after a missed attack. Prey is usually attacked at the surface.[122] Shark attacks occur most often in the morning, within two hours of sunrise, when visibility is poor. Their success rate is 55% in the first two hours, falling to 40% in late morning after which hunting stops.[110]
Off California, sharks immobilize northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) with a large bite to the hindquarters (which is the main source of the seal's mobility) and wait for the seal to bleed to death. This technique is especially used on adult male elephant seals, which are typically larger than the shark, ranging between 1,500 and 2,000 kg (3,300 and 4,400 lb), and are potentially dangerous adversaries.[123][124] Most commonly though, juvenile elephant seals are the most frequently eaten at elephant seal colonies.[125] Prey is normally attacked sub-surface. Harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) are taken from the surface and dragged down until they stop struggling. They are then eaten near the bottom. California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) are ambushed from below and struck mid-body before being dragged and eaten.[126]
In the Northwest Atlantic mature great whites are known to feed on both harbor and grey seals.[51] Unlike adults, juvenile white sharks in the area feed on smaller fish species until they are large enough to prey on marine mammals such as seals.[127]
White sharks also attack dolphins and porpoises from above, behind or below to avoid being detected by their
Whale carcasses comprise an important part of the diet of white sharks. However, this has rarely been observed due to whales dying in remote areas. It has been estimated that 30 kg (66 lb) of whale blubber could feed a 4.5 m (15 ft) white shark for 1.5 months. Detailed observations were made of four whale carcasses in False Bay between 2000 and 2010. Sharks were drawn to the carcass by chemical and odour detection, spread by strong winds. After initially feeding on the whale caudal peduncle and
In another documented incident, white sharks were observed scavenging on a whale carcass alongside tiger sharks.[133] In 2020, marine biologists Sasha Dines and Enrico Gennari published a documented incident in the journal Marine and Freshwater Research of a group of great white sharks exhibiting pack-like behaviour, successfully attacking and killing a live juvenile 7 m (23 ft) humpback whale. The sharks utilized the classic attack strategy used on pinnipeds when attacking the whale, even utilizing the bite-and-spit tactic they employ on smaller prey items. The whale was an entangled individual, heavily emaciated and thus more vulnerable to the sharks' attacks. The incident is the first known documentation of great whites actively killing a large baleen whale.[134][135] A second incident regarding great white sharks killing humpback whales involving a single large female great white nicknamed Helen was documented off the coast of South Africa. Working alone, the shark attacked a 33 ft (10 m) emaciated and entangled humpback whale by attacking the whale's tail to cripple it before she managed to drown the whale by biting onto its head and pulling it underwater. The attack was witnessed via aerial drone by marine biologist Ryan Johnson, who said the attack went on for roughly 50 minutes before the shark successfully killed the whale. Johnson suggested that the shark may have strategized its attack in order to kill such a large animal.[136][137]
Stomach contents of great whites also indicates that whale sharks both juvenile and adult may also be included on the animal's menu, though whether this is active hunting or scavenging is not known at present.[138][139]
Reproduction
Great white sharks were previously thought to reach sexual maturity at around 15 years of age, but are now believed to take far longer; male great white sharks reach sexual maturity at age 26, while females take 33 years to reach sexual maturity.[8][140][141] Maximum life span was originally believed to be more than 30 years, but a study by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution placed it at upwards of 70 years. Examinations of vertebral growth ring count gave a maximum male age of 73 years and a maximum female age of 40 years for the specimens studied. The shark's late sexual maturity, low reproductive rate, long gestation period of 11 months and slow growth make it vulnerable to pressures such as overfishing and environmental change.[7]
Little is known about the great white shark's
On July 9, 2023, the first footage of what was likely a newborn great white shark was filmed via aerial drone off of Southern California, off
Breaching behaviour
A
Natural threats
Interspecific competition between the great white shark and the
In 2015, a pod of orcas was recorded to have killed a great white shark off South Australia.
Relationship with humans
Shark bite incidents
Of all shark species, the great white shark is responsible for by far the largest number of recorded shark bite incidents on humans, with 272 documented unprovoked bite incidents on humans as of 2012.[17]
More than any documented bite incident,
Many bite incidents occur in waters with low visibility or other situations which impair the shark's senses. The species appears to not like the taste of humans, or at least finds the taste unfamiliar. Further research shows that they can tell in one bite whether or not the object is worth predating upon. Humans, for the most part, are too bony for their liking. They much prefer seals, which are fat and rich in protein.[158]
Studies published in 2021 by Ryan et al. in the Journal of the Royal Society Interface suggest that mistaken identity is in fact a case for many shark bite incidents perpetrated by great white sharks. Using cameras and footage of seals in aquariums as models and mounted cameras moving at the same speed and angle as a cruising great white shark looking up at the surface from below, the experiment suggests that the sharks are likely colorblind and cannot see in fine enough detail to determine whether the silhouette above them is a pinniped or a swimming human, potentially vindicating the hypothesis.[159]
Humans are not appropriate prey because the shark's digestion is too slow to cope with a human's high ratio of bone to muscle and fat. Accordingly, in most recorded shark bite incidents, great whites broke off contact after the first bite. Fatalities are usually caused by blood loss from the initial bite rather than from critical organ loss or from whole consumption. From 1990 to 2011 there have been a total of 139 unprovoked great white shark bite incidents, 29 of which were fatal.[160]
However, some researchers have hypothesized that the reason the proportion of fatalities is low is not that sharks do not like human flesh, but because humans are often able to escape after the first bite. In the 1980s, John McCosker, chair of aquatic biology at the
Shark culling
Great white sharks are currently killed in both
KwaZulu-Natal (an area of South Africa) also has a "shark control" program that kills great white sharks and other marine life. In a 30-year period, more than 33,000 sharks were killed in KwaZulu-Natal's shark-killing program, including great whites.[168]
In 2014 the state government of
Attacks on boats
Great white sharks infrequently bite and sometimes even sink boats. Only five of the 108 authenticated unprovoked shark bite incidents reported from the Pacific Coast during the 20th century involved kayakers.[174] In a few cases they have bitten boats up to 10 m (33 ft) in length. They have bumped or knocked people overboard, usually biting the boat from the stern. In one case in 1936, a large shark leapt completely into the South African fishing boat Lucky Jim, knocking a crewman into the sea. Tricas and McCosker's underwater observations suggest that sharks are attracted to boats by the electrical fields they generate, which are picked up by the ampullae of Lorenzini and confuse the shark about whether or not wounded prey might be nearby.[175]
In captivity
Prior to August 1981, no great white shark in captivity lived longer than 11 days. In August 1981, a great white survived for 16 days at SeaWorld San Diego before being released.[176] The idea of containing a live great white at SeaWorld Orlando was used in the 1983 film Jaws 3-D.
Monterey Bay Aquarium first attempted to display a great white in 1984, but the shark died after 11 days because it did not eat.[177] In July 2003, Monterey researchers captured a small female and kept it in a large netted pen near Malibu for five days. They had the rare success of getting the shark to feed in captivity before its release.[178] Not until September 2004 was the aquarium able to place a great white on long-term exhibit. A young female, which was caught off the coast of Ventura, was kept in the aquarium's 3.8 million L (1 million US gal) Outer Bay exhibit for 198 days before she was released in March 2005. She was tracked for 30 days after release.[179] On the evening of 31 August 2006, the aquarium introduced a juvenile male caught outside Santa Monica Bay.[180] His first meal as a captive was a large salmon steak on 8 September 2006, and as of that date, he was estimated to be 1.72 m (68 in) in length and to weigh approximately 47 kg (104 lb). He was released on 16 January 2007, after 137 days in captivity.
Monterey Bay Aquarium housed a third great white, a juvenile male, for 162 days between 27 August 2007, and 5 February 2008. On arrival, he was 1.4 m (4.6 ft) long and weighed 30.6 kg (67 lb). He grew to 1.8 m (5.9 ft) and 64 kg (141 lb) before release. A juvenile female came to the Outer Bay Exhibit on 27 August 2008. While she did swim well, the shark fed only once during her stay and was tagged and released on 7 September 2008. Another juvenile female was captured near Malibu on 12 August 2009, introduced to the Outer Bay exhibit on 26 August 2009, and was successfully released into the wild on 4 November 2009.[181] The Monterey Bay Aquarium introduced a 1.4-m-long male into their redesigned "Open Sea" exhibit on 31 August 2011. He was exhibited for 55 days, and was released into the wild on the 25th of October the same year. However, the shark was determined to have died shortly after release via an attached electronic tag. The cause of death is not known.[182][183][184]
The Monterey Bay Aquarium does not plan to exhibit any more great whites, as the main purpose of containing them was scientific. As data from captive great whites were no longer needed, the institute has instead shifted its focus to study wild sharks.[185]
One of the largest adult great whites ever exhibited was at Japan's
Due to the vast amounts of resources required and the subsequent cost to keep a great white shark alive in captivity, their dietary preferences, size, migratory nature, and the stress of capture and containment, permanent exhibition of a great white shark is likely to be unfeasible.[189]
Shark tourism
Cage diving is most common at sites where great whites are frequent including the coast of South Africa, the
At present, hang baits are illegal off Isla Guadalupe and reputable dive operators do not use them. Operators in South Africa and Australia continue to use hang baits and pinniped decoys.[193] In South Australia, playing rock music recordings underwater, including the AC/DC album Back in Black has also been used experimentally to attract sharks.[194]
Companies object to being blamed for shark bite incidents, pointing out that lightning tends to strike humans more often than sharks bite humans.[195] Their position is that further research needs to be done before banning practices such as chumming, which may alter natural behaviour.[196] One compromise is to only use chum in areas where whites actively patrol anyway, well away from human leisure areas. Also, responsible dive operators do not feed sharks. Only sharks that are willing to scavenge follow the chum trail and if they find no food at the end then the shark soon swims off and does not associate chum with a meal. It has been suggested that government licensing strategies may help enforce these responsible tourism.[193]
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A great white shark approaches divers in a cage off Dyer Island, Western Cape, South Africa
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A great white shark approaches a cage
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Tourists in a cage near Gansbaai
Conservation status
It is unclear how much of a concurrent increase in fishing for great white sharks has caused the decline of great white shark populations from the 1970s to the present. No accurate global population numbers are available, but the great white shark is now considered
The
Fishermen target many sharks for their jaws, teeth, and fins, and as game fish in general. The great white shark, however, is rarely an object of
In Australia
The great white shark was declared vulnerable by the
The national conservation status of the great white shark is reflected by all Australian states under their respective laws, granting the species full protection throughout Australia regardless of jurisdiction.
In 2002, the Australian government created the White Shark Recovery Plan, implementing government-mandated conservation research and monitoring for conservation in addition to federal protection and stronger regulation of shark-related trade and tourism activities.[205] An updated recovery plan was published in 2013 to review progress, research findings, and to implement further conservation actions.[13] A study in 2012 revealed that Australia's white shark population was separated by Bass Strait into genetically distinct eastern and western populations, indicating a need for the development of regional conservation strategies.[206]
Presently, human-caused shark mortality is continuing, primarily from accidental and illegal catching in commercial and recreational fishing as well as from being caught in beach protection netting, and the populations of great white shark in Australia are yet to recover.[13]
In spite of official protections in Australia, great white sharks continue to be killed in state "shark control" programs within Australia. For example, the government of
The Australasian population of great white sharks is believed to be in excess of 8,000–10,000 individuals according to genetic research studies done by
In New Zealand
The great white shark is one of the most commonly found in the waters of New Zealand.[209] As of April 2007, great white sharks were fully protected within 370 km (230 mi) of New Zealand and additionally from fishing by New Zealand-flagged boats outside this range. The maximum penalty is a $250,000 fine and up to six months in prison.[210] In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the great white shark under the New Zealand Threat Classification System as "Nationally Endangered". The species meets the criteria for this classification as there exists a moderate, stable population of between 1000 and 5000 mature individuals. This classification has the qualifiers "Data Poor" and "Threatened Overseas".[211]
In North America
In 2013, great white sharks were added to California's Endangered Species Act. From data collected, the population of great whites in the North Pacific was estimated to be fewer than 340 individuals. Research also reveals these sharks are genetically distinct from other members of their species elsewhere in Africa, Australia, and the east coast of North America, having been isolated from other populations.[212]
A 2014 study estimated the population of great white sharks along the California coastline to be approximately 2,400.[213][214]
In 2015 Massachusetts banned catching, cage diving, feeding, towing decoys, or baiting and chumming for its significant and highly predictable migratory great white population without an appropriate research permit. The goal of these restrictions is to both protect the sharks and public health.[215]
See also
Books
- The Devil's Teeth by Susan Casey
- Close to Shore by Michael Capuzzo about the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916
- Twelve Days of Terror by Richard Fernicola about the same events
- Chasing Shadows: My Life Tracking the Great White Shark by Greg Skomal
Notes
References
- ^ . Retrieved 21 April 2024.
- ^ a b Soldo, A.; Bradai, M.N.; Walls, R. (10 September 2014). "Carcharodon carcharias (Europe assessment)". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T3855A48948790. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
- ^ S2CID 163636286.
- ^ a b c d e f Viegas, Jennifer. "Largest Great White Shark Don't Outweigh Whales, but They Hold Their Own". Discovery Channel. Archived from the original on 7 February 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
- ^ a b Parrish, M. "How Big are Great White Sharks?". Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History Ocean Portal. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
- ^ "Carcharodon carcharias". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
- ^ a b "New study finds extreme longevity in white sharks". Science Daily. 9 January 2014.
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External links
- White Shark, NOAA Fisheries
- White Shark Information, California Department of Fish and Wildlife
- White Shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758), Australian Museum
- Atlantic White Shark Conservancy
- White Shark Conservation Trust, New Zealand