Definition of anarchism and libertarianism
Overview
"Anarchism" generally refers to the anti-authoritarian (libertarian) wing of the socialist movement.[a] "Libertarian socialism" has been a synonym for "anarchism" since 1890,[1] as has the term "libertarian" through the mid-20th century.[2]
The terms "anarchism" and "libertarianism" represent broad political ideologies with multiple historical and contemporary meanings.[3][4][5] Incompatibilities within their pluralistic tradition prove difficult or impossible to reconcile into a singular set of core beliefs.[6] The range of ideological disparities within anarchism is often paradoxical and never fully coherent.[7] Most anarchists are opposed to hierarchy and capitalism. but differ in how they believe that change should be made.[8]
Other complicating factors in defining "anarchism" include disagreement over its status as a political ideology and contention over the term's historical usage.[9] Anarchism's rejection of the state and state policy largely sits outside the purview of political scientists and in some formulations, its misconstruction as the antithesis of politics contributes to its marginalization as a political ideology.[10]
History of usage
Since the 19th century, "libertarian" has referred to advocates for freedom of the will, or anyone who generally advocated for liberty. The first person to call themselves a "libertarian" in the political sense was Joseph Déjacque in 1857. Shortly after, in 1858, he created the New York anarchist journal Le Libertaire.[11] Anarchist Sébastien Faure used the term later in the century to differentiate between anarchists and authoritarian socialists.[11] While the term "libertarian" has been largely synonymous with anarchism,[b] its meaning has more recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups.[11] For example, "libertarians" include both the New Left Marxists (who do not associate with authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party) and extreme liberals (primarily concerned with civil liberties). Additionally, some anarchists use "libertarian socialist" to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasize its connections with socialism.[11]
Anarchism retains a historical association with chaos and violence.
Popular use of anarchist symbols have also affected the connotations of the term divorced from its theoretical background and history as a movement. The influence of
The term "anarchist" is also used as a pejorative
The revival of free-market ideologies during the mid-to-late 20th century came with disagreement over what to call the movement. While many of its adherents, especially in the United States, prefer "libertarian", many Conservative libertarians reject the term's association with the 1960s
Though many contemporary
Relation with socialism
In the 19th century, "anarchism" and "socialism" were used interchangeably, both treated as similar threats to sociopolitical order despite their differences in views towards the state.
The terms "anarchist" and "Marxist" originally signified factions within the
The biggest divide in the definition of anarchism is between the main individualist and socialist anarchist traditions.
Relation with property and capitalism
Modern American libertarians are distinguished from the dominant libertarian tradition by their relation to property and capital. While both historical libertarianism and contemporary economic libertarianism share general antipathy towards the government, contemporary libertarianism favors
Forms of libertarianism that put laissez-faire economics before economic equality are viewed by most anarchists as incompatible with anarchism's general tradition of egalitarianism and anti-capitalism.[c] Anarcho-capitalism, which would abolish the state and create a fully laissez-faire economy,[34] lies outside of traditional forms of anarchism, such as social anarchism.[c] It shares anarchism's antipathy towards the state[34] but not anarchism's antipathy towards hierarchy, as theorists expect from anarcho-capitalist economic power relations.[35] The ideology follows a different paradigm from most forms of anarchism and has a fundamentally different approach and goals. Despite the "anarcho" in its title,[35] some scholars consider anarcho-capitalism to be more closely affiliated with capitalism and right-wing libertarianism, than with anarchism.[c] Further, within laissez-faire libertarianism, some reject the designation "anarcho-capitalism", believing that "capitalism" may either refer to the laissez-faire market they support or the government-regulated system that they oppose.[36]
Types of definition of anarchism
Anarchism scholar Paul McLaughlin studies the various definitions of anarchism in his book Anarchism and Authority. According to him, there are three common types of anarchism definition:
- etymological definitions
- anti-statist definitions
- anti-authoritarian definitions
But all fall short from providing a precise definition of anarchism.[37]
Etymological definition
"Anarchy" derives from the Greek anarkhos, meaning "without authority" (as opposed to "without government/state").[38] Hence the etymological definition of anarchism as the negation of an authority. But anarchism is generally not simply a negative stance on authority but also a positive stance about how society should be structured.[37]
Anti-statist definition
Anti-statist definitions place the focus of interest on the negation, and confrontation in the real world, of the state by anarchism. But as with the etymological definition, anarchism is much more than anti-statism, as it generally rejects all forms of established authority.[39]
The association between anti-statism and anarchism is both commonly understood and contested.[d]
Anarchism, according to historian
Anarchist libertarians and modern economic libertarians share opposition to the state as their only significant commonality.[41]
Anti-authoritarian definitions
Anti-authoritarian definitions depicts the rejection of all kinds of authorities. Even though these kind of definitions are much broader than the anti-statist ones, there are still handicaps. McLaughlin, who examines under a philosophical scope, claims that anti-authoritarianism is a conclusion of anarchist thought, not an a priori statement, therefore it can not be used as a definition.[42]
See also
- Definition of fascism
- Definition of terrorism
- Floating signifier
- Libertaire and Libertario
Notes
- ^
- Levy & Adams 2018, p. 104: "As such, many people use the term 'anarchism' to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement."
- Marshall 1992, p. 641: "In general, anarchism is closer to socialism than liberalism. ... Anarchism finds itself largely in the socialist camp, but it also has outriders in liberalism. It cannot be reduced to socialism, and is best seen as a separate and distinctive doctrine."
- Cohn 2009, p. 4: "... from the 1890s on, the term 'libertarian socialism' has entered common use as a synonym for anarchism."
- Chomsky 2005, p. 123: Modern anarchism is "the libertarian wing of socialism".
- ^
- Marshall 1992, p. 641: "For a long time, libertarian was interchangeable in France with anarchist but in recent years, its meaning has become more ambivalent."
- Cohn 2009, p. 6: "'libertarianism' ... a term that, until the mid-twentieth century, was synonymous with "anarchism" per se"
- ^ a b c
- Marshall 1992, pp. 564–565: "Anarcho-capitalists are against the State simply because they are capitalists first and foremost. ... They are not concerned with the social consequences of capitalism for the weak, powerless and ignorant. ... As such, anarcho-capitalism overlooks the egalitarian implications of traditional individualist anarchists like Spooner and Tucker. In fact, few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice. Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practising voluntary co-operation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the state, might therefore best be called right-wing libertarians rather than anarchists."
- Jennings 1993, p. 143: "... anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the 'anarcho-capitalists' appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community."
- Gay & Gay 1999, p. 15: "For many anarchists (of whatever persuasion), anarcho-capitalism is a contradictory term, since 'traditional' anarchists oppose capitalism"
- Morriss 2008, p. 13: "Social anarchists, those anarchists with communitarian leanings, are critical of anarcho-capitalism because it permits individuals to accumulate substantial power through markets and private property."
- Franks 2013, pp. 393–394: "Individualisms that defend or reinforce hierarchical forms such as the economic-power relations of anarcho-capitalism ... are incompatible with practices of social anarchism ... Increasingly, academic analysis has followed activist currents in rejecting the view that anarcho-capitalism has anything to do with social anarchism."
- ^
- Jun 2009, p. 507: "One common misconception, which has been rehearsed repeatedly by the few Anglo-American philosophers who have bothered to broach the topic ... is that anarchism can be defined solely in terms of opposition to states and governments."
- Franks 2013, pp. 386–387: "... many, questionably, regard anti-statism as the irremovable, universal principle at the core of anarchism"
- Franks 2013, p. 388: "The fact that [socialist and individualist anarchisms] share a core concept of 'anti-statism', which is often advanced as ... a commonality between them ..., is insufficient to produce a shared identity ... because [they interpret] the concept of state-rejection ... differently despite the initial similarity in nomenclature."
- McLaughlin 2007, p. 166: "[opposition to the state] is (contrary to what many scholars believe) not definitive of anarchism"
References
- ^ Cohn 2009, p. 4.
- ^ Cohn 2009, p. 6.
- ^ Miller 1984, p. 2.
- ^ Levy & Adams 2018, p. 102.
- ^ Cornell 2016, p. 10: "The word libertarian has been historically contested alongside the term anarchism."
- ^ Levy & Adams 2018, p. 56.
- ^ Miller 1984, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Linthicum, Kate (January 25, 2010). "Book fair draws an array of anarchists". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved September 19, 2020.
- ^ a b Franks 2013, pp. 385–386.
- ^ a b Franks 2013, p. 385.
- ^ a b c d Marshall 1992, p. 641.
- ^ a b Evren 2011, p. 1.
- ^ Evren 2011, pp. 1–2.
- ^ a b c d Franks 2013, p. 386.
- ^ Long & Machan 2008, p. 111.
- ^ Cornell 2016, p. 10.
- ^ Doherty 2008, pp. 584–585.
- ^ Gamble 2013, p. 414.
- ^ a b Gamble 2013, p. 405.
- ^ a b Gamble 2013, p. 406.
- ^ Gamble 2013, pp. 405–406.
- ^ Williams 2018, p. 6.
- ^ Kemp 2018, p. 180.
- ^ Amster et al. 2009, p. 3.
- ^ Amster et al. 2009, p. 9.
- ^ Chomsky 2005, p. 123.
- ^ a b Callahan & Curtis 2009, pp. 161, 163.
- ^ Graham 2015, p. 227.
- ^ Woodcock 1980, p. 85.
- ^ a b c d Franks 2013, p. 388.
- ^ Francis 1983, p. 462.
- ^ Francis 1983, pp. 462–463.
- ^ Francis 1983, p. 463.
- ^ a b Gay & Gay 1999.
- ^ a b Davis 2019, p. 64.
- ^ Long & Machan 2008, p. vii.
- ^ a b McLaughlin 2007, p. 27.
- ^ Jun 2009, p. 507.
- ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Marshall 1992, p. 639.
- ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 165, n26–166.
- ^ McLaughlin 2007, p. 28.
Bibliography
- Amster, Randall; DeLeon, Abraham; Fernandez, Luis; Nocera, Anthony J.; Shannon, Deric, eds. (2009). Contemporary Anarchist Studies: An Introductory Anthology of Anarchy in the Academy. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415474023.
- Callahan, Kevin J.; Curtis, Sarah A., eds. (2009). Views from the Margins: Creating Identities in Modern France. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0803215597.
- ISBN 978-1904859260.
- Cohn, Jesse (2009). "Anarchism". In ISBN 978-1405198073.
- Cornell, Andrew (2016). ISBN 978-0-520-28675-7.
- Davis, Laurence (2019). "Individual and Community". In Levy, Carl; Adams, Matthew S. (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. Cham: Springer. pp. 47–70. S2CID 150149495.
- Doherty, Brian (2008). ISBN 978-1586485726.
- ISBN 978-0745330860.
- Francis, Mark (December 1983). "Human Rights and Libertarians". ISSN 0004-9522.
- .
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- Gay, Kathlyn; Gay, Martin (1999). Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0874369823.
- Graham, Robert (2015). We Do Not Fear Anarchy, We Invoke It: The First International and the Origins of the Anarchist Movement. AK Press. ISBN 978-1-84935-211-6.
- Jennings, Jeremy (1993). "Anarchism". In Eatwell, Roger; Wright, Anthony (eds.). Contemporary Political Ideologies. London: Pinter. pp. 127–146. ISBN 978-0861870967.
- Jun, Nathan (September 2009). "Anarchist Philosophy and Working Class Struggle: A Brief History and Commentary". ISSN 1089-7011.
- Kemp, Michael (2018). "Beneath a White Tower". Bombs, Bullets and Bread: The Politics of Anarchist Terrorism Worldwide, 1866–1926. Jefferson, North Carolina: ISBN 978-1476671017.
- Levy, Carl; Adams, Matthew S., eds. (2018). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. Palgrave Macmillan. S2CID 149333615.
- Long, Roderick T.; ISBN 978-0754660668.
- ISBN 978-0002178556.
- McLaughlin, Paul (2007). "Defining Anarchism". Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate. pp. 25–36. ISBN 978-0754661962.
- ISBN 0460100939.
- Morriss, Andrew (2008). "Anarcho-capitalism". In OCLC 191924853.
- Williams, Dana M. (June 2018). "Contemporary anarchist and anarchistic movements". Sociology Compass. 12 (6): e12582. ISSN 1751-9020.
- ProQuest 1296885359.
Further reading
- Béja, Alice (2019). "'Dreaming (Un)American Dreams': Anarchists and the Struggle to Define Americanism". Journal for the Study of Radicalism. 13 (1): 1–18. S2CID 151297246.
- Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilbur R. (ed.). The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia. Los Angeles: Sage. pp. 1005–1009. ISBN 978-1412988766.
- Clark, John P. (1978). "What Is Anarchism?". Nomos. 19: 3–28. JSTOR 24219036.
- Daskal, Steve (2010). "Libertarianism Left and Right, the Lockean Proviso, and the Reformed Welfare State". Social Theory and Practice. 36 (1): 21–43. S2CID 144903940.
- Davis, Laurence (2014). "Anarchism". In Geoghegan, Vincent; Wilford, Rick (eds.). Political ideologies: an introduction (4th ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 213–. OCLC 893825327.
- De George, Richard T. (2005). "Anarchism". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 31–32. ISBN 0199264791.
- Eatwell, Roger; Wright, Anthony, eds. (1999). Contemporary Political Ideologies (reprinted, 2nd ed.). London: A & C Black. ISBN 978-0826451736.
- ProQuest 2123044536.
- OCLC 468750811.
- Jun, Nathan (2011). Anarchism and Political Modernity. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1441166869.
- Levy, Carl (2010). "Social Histories of Anarchism". Journal for the Study of Radicalism. 4 (2): 1–44. Project MUSE.
- McLaughlin, Paul (2021). "Anarchism, Anarchists, and Anarchy". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought. Routledge. pp. 15–27. ISBN 978-1351733588.
- Morriss, Brian (2015). Anthropology, Ecology, and Anarchism: A Brian Morris Reader. Marshall, Peter (illustrated ed.). Oakland: PM Press. ISBN 978-1604860931.
- Newman, Michael (2005). Socialism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192804310.
- Novak, D. (1958). "The Place of Anarchism in the History of Political Thought". S2CID 143880498.
- Purkis, Jonathan; Bowen, James, eds. (2005). Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0719066948.
- Raekstad, Paul (2016). "Understanding Anarchism: Some Basics". JSTOR 26141887.
- ISBN 978-0271020495.
- Shantz, Jeffrey; Williams, Dana M. (2013). "Problems of Research on Radicals (Or Anarchist Movement Epistemology)". Anarchy and Society: Reflections on Anarchist Sociology. Studies in Critical Social Sciences. Leiden: Brill. pp. 158–174. ISBN 978-9004252998.
- Walter, Nicholas (2002). About Anarchism. London: Freedom Press. ISBN 978-0900384905.