Dietrich Eckart
Dietrich Eckart | |
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Dietrich Eckart (German:
Eckart was elevated to the status of a major thinker upon the establishment of Nazi Germany in 1933. He was acknowledged by Hitler to be the spiritual co-founder of Nazism and "a guiding light of the early National Socialist movement."[1]
Early life
Eckart was born on 23 March 1868 in Neumarkt, about 32 kilometres (20 mi) southeast of Nuremberg in the Kingdom of Bavaria, the son of Christian Eckart, a royal notary and lawyer, and his wife Anna, a devout Catholic. Eckart's mother died when he was ten years old and he was expelled from several schools. In 1895, his father died, leaving him a considerable amount of money that Eckart soon spent.
Eckart initially studied law at
As a playwright Eckart had success with his 1912 adaptation of
From 1907 Eckart lived with his brother Wilhelm in the Döberitz mansion colony west of the Berlin city limits. In 1913 he married Rose Marx, an affluent widow from Bad Blankenburg, and returned to Munich.[3][4][5]
Eckart's adaptation of Peer Gynt
In Eckart's five-act version of Ibsen's piece, the play became "a powerful dramatisation of nationalist and antisemitic ideas", in which Gynt represents the superior Germanic hero, struggling against implicitly Jewish "trolls".[6] In Ibsen's original play, Peer Gynt leaves Norway to become the "king of the world", but through his selfish and deceptive actions his body and soul are ruined, and he returns to his native village in shame. Eckart, however, sees Gynt as a hero who challenges the trollish, i.e. Jewish, world. His transgressions are therefore noble, and Gynt returns to reclaim the innocence of his youth. This conception of the character was influenced by Eckart's hero, Otto Weininger, who led him to see Gynt as an antisemitic genius.[7] In this racial allegory, the trolls and Dovregubben ("Dovre Giant") represent Weininger's concept of "Jewishness".
Eckart later wrote to Hitler—in a copy of the play he presented to him shortly after Hitler became the Nazi Party Fuhrer—that "[Gynt's] idea of becoming the king of the world should not be taken literally as the 'Will to Power'. Hidden behind this is a spiritual belief that he will ultimately be pardoned for all his sins."
Antisemitism and foundation of the German Workers' Party (DAP)
Eckart was not always an antisemite. In 1898, for instance, Eckart wrote and had published a poem extolling the virtues and beauty of a Jewish girl. Before his conversion to antisemitism, the two people he admired most were the poet Heinrich Heine and Otto Weininger, who were both Jews. Weininger, however, had converted to Protestantism, and has been described as a "self-hating Jew" eventually espousing antisemitic views. Eckart's admiration for Weininger may have played a part in his conversion.[9]
In December 1918,
Eckart's antisemitism was influenced by the publication The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which had been brought to Germany by "white Russian" emigrés fleeing the October Revolution. The book purported to outline the international Jewish conspiracy for control of the world, and many right-wing and völkisch political figures believed it to be a true account.[14]
After living in Berlin for many years, Eckart moved to Munich in 1913, the same year that Hitler moved there from Vienna.[15] In January 1919, he, Feder, Anton Drexler and Karl Harrer founded the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (German Workers' Party, or DAP). In order to increase its appeal to larger segments of the population, in February 1920 it changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers' Party, or NSDAP); more commonly known as the Nazi Party.[16] Eckart was largely responsible for the party buying the Münchener Beobachter in December 1920, when he arranged for the loan which paid for it. The 60,000 Marks came from German Army funds available to General Franz Ritter von Epp, and the loan was secured with Eckart's house and possessions as collateral,[17][1] with Dr. Gottfried Grandel, an Augsburg chemist and factory owner who was Eckart's friend and a funder of the Party, as guarantor.[18] The newspaper was renamed the Völkischer Beobachter and became the party's official organ, with Eckart as its first editor and publisher.[19] He also created the Nazi slogan Deutschland erwache ("Germany awake"), and wrote the lyrics for the anthem based on it, the "Sturm-Lied".[19][20]
In 1921 Eckart promised 1,000 Marks to everyone who could cite one Jewish family whose sons had served longer than three weeks at the front during the First World War. The Hannover rabbi Samuel Freund named 20 Jewish families who met this condition and sued Eckart when he refused to pay the reward. During the trial, Freund named 50 more Jewish families with up to seven veterans, among whom were several which lost up to[21] three sons in the war. Eckart lost the case and had to pay.
Eckart and Hitler
Eckart was instrumental in creating the persona of
The two first met when Hitler gave a speech before the DAP membership in the winter of 1919. Hitler immediately impressed Eckart, who said of him "I felt myself attracted by his whole way of being, and very soon I realized that he was exactly the right man for our young movement."[15] It is probably Nazi legend that Eckart said about Hitler on their first meeting "That's Germany's next great man –one day the whole world will talk about him."[1] Although not a member,[Notes 1] Eckart was involved at the time with the Thule Society, a secretive group of occultists who believed in the coming of a "German Messiah" who would redeem Germany after its defeat in World War I.[26] He began to see in Hitler the possibility that he was that person.
Eckart, who was 21 years older than Hitler, became the father-figure to a group of younger volkisch men, including Hitler and Hermann Esser, and acted as mediator between the two when they clashed, telling Esser that Hitler, whom he esteemed as the DAP's best speaker, was the far superior man.[27] He became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and helping to establish theories and beliefs of the Party.[28] He lent Hitler books to read, gave him a trench coat to wear, and made corrections to Hitler's style of speaking and writing.[29][30] Hitler was to say later "Stylistically I was still an infant."[1] Eckart also schooled the provincial Hitler in proper manners,[31] and regarded Hitler as his protégé.[18]
Hitler and Eckart had many things in common, including their interest in art and politics, that both thought of themselves primarily as artists, and both were prone to depression. They also shared that their early influences were Jewish, a fact which both preferred not to speak about. Although, unlike Hitler, Eckart did not believe that Jews were a race apart, by the time the two met, Hitler's goal was "the total removal of the Jews", and Eckart had expressed the opinion that all Jews should be put on a train and driven into the Red Sea.[9] He also espoused that any Jew who married a German woman should be jailed for three years, and executed if he repeated the crime.[30] Paradoxically, Eckart also believed that the existence of humanity depended on the antithesis between Aryans and Jews, that one could not exist without the other. In 1919, Eckart had written that it would be "the end of all times ... if the Jewish people perished."[32]
Eckart provided Hitler with entré into the Munich arts scene. He introduced Hitler to the painter Max Zaeper and his salon of like-minded antisemitic artists, and to the photographer Heinrich Hoffmann.[33] It was Eckart who introduced Alfred Rosenberg to Hitler. Between 1920 and 1923, Eckart and Rosenberg labored tirelessly in the service of Hitler and the party. Through Rosenberg, Hitler was introduced to the writings of Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Rosenberg's inspiration. Both Rosenberg and Eckart were influential with Hitler on the subject of Russia. Eckart saw Russia as Germany's natural ally, writing in 1919 that "German politics hardly has another choice than to enter an alliance with a new Russia after the elimination of the Bolshevik regime." He felt strongly that Germany should support the Russian people in their struggle against the "current Jewish regime", by which he meant the Bolsheviks. Rosenberg also counseled Hitler along these lines, with the two men providing Hitler with the intellectual basis for his Eastern policy, which was then made practical by Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter.[34][35]
In March 1920, at the behest of Karl Mayr –the German General Staff officer who had first introduced Hitler to politics– Hitler and Eckart flew to Berlin to meet Wolfgang Kapp and take part in the Kapp Putsch,[36] as well as to forge a connection between Kapp's forces and Mayr. Kapp and Eckart knew each other - Kapp had donated 1,000 Marks in support of Eckart's weekly magazine. However, the trip was not a success: Hitler, who wore a false beard, was afraid of heights and got airsick on the way –it was his first airplane flight– and when they arrived in Berlin, the putsch was already collapsing.[37] Nor did they create a positive impression with the Berliners: Captain Waldemar Pabst is said to have told them "The way you look and talk –people are going to laugh at you."[1]
Eckart introduced Hitler to wealthy potential donors connected to the
In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the Nazi Party in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP).[40] Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party,[41] so Eckart –who had lobbied the committee not to lose Hitler[42]– was asked by the Party leadership to talk with Hitler and relay the conditions in which Hitler would agree to return to the Party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on the conditions that the party headquarters would remain in Munich, and that he would replace Anton Drexler as party chairman and become the party's dictator, its "Fuhrer".[43] The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26 July 1921.[44]
Eckart would also advise Hitler about the people who had gathered around him and the Party, such as the virulently antisemitic Julius Streicher, the publisher of the quasi-pornographic Der Stürmer. Hitler was repelled by pornography and disapproved of Streicher's sexual activities; he also was distressed by the many intra-party fights that Streicher managed to start. According to Hitler, Eckart told him on multiple occasions "that Streicher was a schoolteacher, and a lunatic to boot, from many points of view. He always added that one could not hope for a triumph of National Socialism without giving one's support to a man like Streicher."[45]
For a time, before Alfred Rosenberg took over the role, Eckart –along with Gottfried Feder– was considered to be the Nazi Party's "philosopher."[46]
Growing apart
The more confidence that Hitler felt in himself, to a large extent due to Eckart's mentoring, the less that he needed Eckart as a mentor, which resulted in the relationship cooling off.[1]
In November 1922, Eckart and the party's chief fund-raiser outside of Germany, Emil Gansser, made a trip to
After publishing a slanderous poem about Friedrich Ebert, the President of Germany at the time, Eckart ducked an arrest warrant by escaping in early 1923 to the Bavarian Alps near Berchtesgaden, close to the German-Austrian border, under the name "Dr. Hoffman". In April, Hitler visited him there at the Pension Moritz in Obersalzberg, and stayed with him for a few days as "Herr Wolf".[48] It was Hitler's introduction to the area where he would later build his mountain retreat, the Berghof.[49]
Hitler had recently replaced Eckart as the publisher of Völkischer Beobachter with Alfred Rosenberg, although he softened the blow by making it clear that he still regarded Eckart highly. "His accomplishments are everlasting!" Hitler said, he just was not constitutionally able to run a big business like a daily newspaper. "I would not be able to do it, either," according to Hitler, "I have been fortunate that I got a few people who know how to do it. ... It would be as if I tried to run a farm! I wouldn't be able to do it." Nevertheless, tensions between Hitler and Eckart began to appear. Not only were there personal disagreements about the behavior of each towards a woman, but Hitler was annoyed that Eckart didn't believe that a putsch launched in Munich could turn into a successful national revolution. "Munich is not Berlin," Eckart said, "It would lead to nothing but ultimate failure."[50]
Despite his own role in promoting Hitler as a genius and messiah, in May 1923 he complained to Ernst "Putzi" Hanfstaengl, another of Hitler's mentors, that Hitler had "megalomania halfway between a Messiah complex and Neroism" after Hitler had compared himself to Jesus throwing the money-changers out of the temple.[51][50]
Motivated by his temporary annoyance at Eckart, and by Eckart's impracticality in operational matters, Hitler began attempting to run the party without Eckart's assistance, and when forced to use Eckart again as a political operative, the results were disappointing. Hitler began to see Eckart as a political liability due to his disorganization and his increased drinking. Hitler, however, did not discard or sideline him, as he had with other early comrades who had stood in his way. He stayed close to Eckart intellectually and emotionally, and continued to visit him in the mountains. The relationship between the two men was not simply a political one.[52]
On 9 November 1923, Eckart participated in the failed Beer Hall Putsch. He was arrested and placed in Landsberg Prison along with Hitler and other party officials, but was released shortly thereafter due to illness. He then went to Berchtesgaden to recuperate.
Hitler as genius and messiah
Eckart promoted Hitler as Germany's coming savior.[53] Eckart's hero, Otto Weininger, had formulated a dichotomy in which genius and Jews were opposed. Genius, in Weininger's view, was the epitome of masculinity and non-materialism, while Jews were femininity in its purest form. Eckart took upon himself this philosophy, and considered that the role of genius was to rid the world of the baleful influence of Jews. Many parts of German society held similar views, and were looking for a savior, a "German Messiah", a genius to lead them out of the economic and political morass the country had fallen into as a result of the Great Depression and the economic effects of the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I.
Under Eckart's tutelage Hitler first began to think of himself as that person, a superior being.[54] Because it was generally believed that geniuses were born and not made, he could not present himself as having been mentored by Eckart and others. Thus in Mein Kampf, Hitler did not mention Eckart or Karl Mayr, or the others who had been instrumental in creating what the world was now meant to see as the natural genius, Adolf Hitler, the German Messiah.[55]
Shortly after the Party purchase of the Völkischer Beobachter in December 1920, and Eckart's installation as editor, with Rosenberg as his assistant, the two men had begun to use the newspaper as a vehicle to disseminate this "
Death
Eckart died in Berchtesgaden on 26 December 1923 of a heart attack. He was buried in Berchtesgaden's old cemetery, not far from the eventual graves of Nazi Party official Hans Lammers and his wife and daughter.
Although Hitler did not mention Eckart in the first volume of Mein Kampf, after Eckart's death he dedicated the second volume to him,[25] writing that Eckart was "one of the best, who devoted his life to the awakening of our people, in his writings and his thoughts and finally in his deeds."[57] In private, he would admit Eckart's role as his mentor and teacher, and said of him in 1942: "We have all moved forward since then, that's why we don't see what [Eckart] used to be back then: a polar star. The writings of all others were filled with platitudes, but if he told you off: such wit! I was a mere infant then in terms of style."[25] Hitler later told one of his secretaries that his friendship with Eckart was "one of the best things he experienced in the 1920s" and that he never again had a friend with whom he felt such "a harmony of thinking and feeling."[1]
Memorials
During the Nazi period, several monuments and memorials were created to Eckart. Hitler named the arena near the
Eckart's birthplace in Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz was officially renamed with the added suffix "Dietrich-Eckart-Stadt". In 1934, Adolf Hitler inaugurated a monument in his honour in the city park.[60] It has since been rededicated to Christopher of Bavaria (1416–1448), King of Denmark, who was probably born in the town.
In March 1938, when Passau commemorated Eckart's 70th birthday at Oberhaus Castle, the Lord Mayor announced not only the creation of a Dietrich-Eckart-Foundation but also the restoration of the room where Eckart had been imprisoned.[61] In addition, a street was dedicated to Eckart.[62]
Ideas and assessments
Eckart has been called the spiritual father of Nazism,[63] and indeed Hitler acknowledged him as being its spiritual co-founder.[19]
Eckart viewed World War I not as a holy war between Germans and non-Germans, as it was sometime interpreted toward the end of the conflict,
In 1925, Eckart's unfinished essay Der Bolschewismus von Moses bis Lenin: Zwiegespräch zwischen Hitler und mir ("Bolshevism from Moses to Lenin: Dialogue Between Hitler and Me") was published posthumously. Margarete Plewnia considered the dialogue between Eckart and Hitler to be an invention by Eckart himself,[67] but Ernst Nolte, Friedrich Heer and Klaus Scholder think that the book – which was completed and published posthumously by Rosenberg, allegedly using Eckart's notes – reflects Hitler's own words.[68][69] Thus historian Richard Steigmann-Gall believed that "[the] book still remains a reliable indicator of [Eckart's] own views."[70]
Steigmann-Gall quotes from the book:[70]
In Christ, the embodiment of all manliness, we find all that we need. And if we occasionally speak of
Baldur(a god in Norse mythology), our words always contain some joy, some satisfaction, that our pagan ancestors were already so Christian as to have an indication of Christ in this ideal figure.
Steigmann-Gall concluded that, "far from advocating a paganism or anti-Christian religion, Eckart held that, in Germany's postwar tailspin, Christ was a leader to be emulated."
Joseph Howard Tyson writes that Eckart's anti-Old Testament views show a strong resemblance to the early Christian heresy Marcionism.[73]
In 1935 Alfred Rosenberg published the book Dietrich Eckart. Ein Vermächtnis ("Dietrich Eckart. A Legacy") with collected writings by Eckart, including this passage:
To be a genius means to use the soul, to strive for the divine, to escape from the mean; and even if this cannot be totally achieved, there will be no space for the opposite of good. It does not prevent the genius to portray also the wretchedness of being in all shapes and colors, being the great artist that he is; but he does this as an observer, not taking part, sine ira et studio, his heart remains pure. ... The ideal in this, just like in every respect whatsoever is Christ; his words "You judge by human standards; I pass judgment on no one" show the completely divine freedom from the influence of the senses, the overcoming of the earthly world even without art as an intermediary. At the other end you find Heine and his race ... all they do culminates in ... the motive, in subjugating the world, and the less this works, the more hate-filled their work becomes that is to satisfy their motive, the more deceitful and fallacious every try to reach the goal. No trace of true genius, the very opposite of the manliness of genius ...[74][Notes 2]
Personality
Early Nazi adherent
Works
- "Bolshevism from Moses to Lenin: A Dialogue Between Adolf Hitler and Me" English translation (PDF)
Notes
- ^ Not only was Eckart not a member of the Thule Society, he also never formally joined either the German Workers Party (DAP) or the Nazi Party (NSDAP). Ullrich (2017), pp.105-107
- ^ Rosenberg's original German text: "Genie sein heißt Seele betätigen, heißt zum Göttlichen streben, heißt dem Gemeinen entrinnen; und wenn das auch nie ganz gelingt, für das gerade Gegenteil des Guten bleibt doch kein Spielraum mehr. Das hindert nicht, dass der geniale Mensch die Erbärmlichkeiten des Daseins in allen Formen und Farben zeigt, als großer Künstler, der er dann ist; aber das tut er betrachtend, nicht selbst mitgehend, sine ira et studio, unbeteiligten Herzens. ... Das Ideal aber in dieser, wie überhaupt in jeder Beziehung ist Christus; das eine Wort "Ihr richtet nach dem Fleisch, ich richte niemand" offenbart die göttlichste Freiheit vom Einfluss des Sinnlichen, die Überwindung der irdischen Welt sogar ohne das Medium der Kunst. Am entgegengesetzten Ende aber steht Heine mitsamt seiner Rasse, ... gipfelt alles ... im Zweck, die Welt sich gefügig zu machen; und je mehr dies misslingt, desto hasserfüllter das Werk, mit dem das Ziel erreicht werden soll, desto listiger und verlogener aber auch jeder neue Versuch, ans Ziel zu gelangen. Vom wahren Genie keine Spur, gerade das Gegenteil seiner Männlichkeit ... ."
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Ullrich 2017, pp. 105–107.
- ^ Rosmus 2015, p. 49f.
- ^ Noller, Sonja. ""Eckart, Dietrich" in: Neue Deutsche Biographie 4 (1959)". p. 284. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
- ^ Chauvy, Gérard. Les Eminences grises du nazisme, Ixelles Editions, 2014.
- ^ Plewnia 1970, p. 27.
- ISBN 9780754651376pp.74–91.
- ^ a b Weber 2017, p. 237.
- ^ Weber 2017, pp. 237–38.
- ^ a b Weber 2017, pp. 141–42.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 154.
- ^ Toland 1976, p. 78.
- ^ Plewnia 1970, p. 34.
- ^ a b Evans 2003, p. 177.
- ^ Weber 2017, p. 222.
- ^ a b Weber 2017, p. 141.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 82, 87.
- ^ Weber 2017, p. 208.
- ^ a b c Kershaw 1999, p. 155.
- ^ a b c d e Bracher 1970, p. 119.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 210.
- ^ Rosenthal, Jacob (2007) Die Ehre des jüdischen Soldaten. Die Judenzählung im Ersten Weltkrieg und ihre Folgen. Frankfurt am Main . New York: Campus Verlag. p.126 {German}
- ^ Fest 1975, p. 136.
- ^ Weber 2017, p. 268.
- ^ Kershaw 1991, p. 23.
- ^ a b c Weber 2017, p. 143.
- ISBN 978-1-56718-336-8.
- ^ Weber 2017, pp. 140–41.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 94, 95, 100.
- ^ a b Bullock 1964, pp. 78–79.
- ^ a b c Toland 1976, p. 99.
- ^ a b Fest 1975, pp. 132–33.
- ^ Weber 2017, p. 317.
- ^ Weber 2017, p. 142-43, 213.
- ^ Weber 2017, pp. 220–224.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 246.
- ISBN 9783430163736
- ^ Weber 2017, p. 159-62.
- ^ Kershaw 1991, p. 41.
- ^ Weber 2017, pp. 212–13.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 100, 101.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 102.
- ^ Weber 2017, p. 235.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 102, 103.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 103.
- ^ Toland 1976, p. 125.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 158.
- ^ Weber 2017, pp. 254, 265.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 282.
- ^ Weber 2017, pp. 262–263.
- ^ a b Weber 2017, p. 264.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 183.
- ^ Weber 2017, pp. 264–266.
- ^ Bullock 1991, p. 81.
- ^ Weber 2017, p. 142.
- ^ Weber 2017, p. 190.
- ^ Weber 2017, p. 238.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 39.
- ^ Kitchen, Martin (2014) The Third Reich: Charisma and Community. New York: .Routledge p.199
- ISBN 3-934748-26-0
- ISBN 9788129109538
- ^ Rosmus 2015, p. 141.
- ^ Rosmus 2015, p. 249f.
- ISBN 978-1-57607-940-9. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
- ^ Krumeich, Gerd (2000). Got mit uns? Der Erste Weltkrieg als Religionkrieg (in German). Göttingen: Vanderhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 273–283.
- .
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8147-4893-0
- ^ Plewnia 1970.
- S2CID 163245805.
- ^ Scholder, Klaus (1977), Die Kirchen und das Dritte Reich. Bd. 1: Vorgeschichte und Zeit der Illusionen, 1918 - 1934 (in German), Berlin, pp. 112–113
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b c Steigmann-Gall 2003, p. 18.
- S2CID 159472257.
- ^ S2CID 145187701.
- ISBN 9780595616855
- ^ Rosenberg 1935.
- ISBN 978-0-7864-2458-0. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
- ^ Mitcham 1996, p. 185,n,42.
- ^ Weber 2017, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Toland 1976, p. 77.
Bibliography
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- Plewnia, Magarete (1970). Auf dem Weg zu Hitler. Der 'völkische' Publizist Dietrich Eckart (in German). Bremen: Schünemann Universitätsverlag. ISBN 978-3-7961-3007-6.
- Rosenberg, Alfred (1935). Dietrich Eckart: Ein Vermächtnis (in German). Munich: Franz Eher Nachfolger.
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External links
- Online books by Dietrich Eckart
- Literatur von und über Dietrich Eckart im Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek
- Daniel Wosnitzka: Tabellarischer Lebenslauf von Dietrich Eckart im DHM und HdG)
- Bestand: ED 54: Eckart, Dietrich. Im Archiv des Instituts für Zeitgeschichte, München-Berlin (PDF, 42 KB).
- Newspaper clippings about Dietrich Eckart in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW