Distraction display

Armstrong additionally noted that displaying animals were rarely captured by predators, as would be expected if the display were truly uncontrolled, and that the movements seemed to show signs of some sort of control by the animal, although likely not conscious, intelligent control.[1] One example of apparent control is attention seemingly paid to routes used by the displaying animal when moving away from the nest.^[1] Furthermore, researchers have noted parent animals moving towards the predator during the display.^[1][14][19] While some of these cases could be attributed to mistakes made during "partial paralysis", in the case described by Wiklund and Stigh, snowy owls consistently walked or ran towards the predator while displaying, suggesting that the action was deliberate.^[19]

An additional hypothesis in alignment with Armstrong's ideas about conflicting impulses suggests that the incorporation of sexual and threat displays into the distraction display may represent

In any case, there are some forms of distraction display which may in fact have evolved from stress responses, an idea more in alignment with Lack's hypothesis. One of these is the "rodent-run" display, in which a bird fluffs its feathers to mimic the fur of a rodent and scurries away from the nest. It is possible that this display originates from a feather ruffling reflex to alarm.[14]

Adaptive functions

There are several conditions in which distraction display may be advantageous to the animal, such that the incorporation of displacement or stress behaviors into offspring defense will most likely undergo positive selection. Most such cases depend upon the condition or location of the nest: distraction display has tended to evolve in species whose nests alone do not provide a substantial physical barrier to predators, and in those that nest on exposed terrain or close to the ground.^[4] If the nest is on open terrain, the parent may perceive predators at a greater distance and be able to leave the nest and begin displaying before the predator is in sufficient proximity to locate the nest.^[21][4] Ground-nesting birds employ different defensive behaviors as part of their antipredator strategies because they nest where a wide range of predators have access.

It has been shown that for Kentish plovers there is a positive correlation between male and female defense behaviors within pairs and that nests in which parents invested more on defense survived longer.^[22] Furthermore, if the nest is on or near the ground, the parent may be able to display more effectively; Armstrong noted the relative rarity in the literature of distraction display in arboreal-nesting species, and attributed this to the difficulty of displaying convincingly while on a branch.^[4] Nonetheless, there have been anecdotal reports of warblers, which nest arboreally, dropping to the ground to perform a distraction display when disturbed, as well as displaying along a tree branch.^[23] In addition, distraction display tends to be most adaptive when animals nest solitarily, as solitary nesters lack the opportunity for mobbing a predator or otherwise performing communal defense, although some species have been observed to display in groups.^[4] Finally, distraction display tends to be adaptive when diurnal predation by visually-stimulated predators takes place (as these predators are most likely to notice the visual display).^[4]

In birds

Distraction display has been most extensively studied in birds.^[4] It has been observed in many species, including passerines^{[15][23][24][25]} and non-passerines,^[19][26][27] and has been particularly well documented in the Charadriiformes.^{[28][13][14][17][29]}

Injury-feigning, including broken-wing^[30][2] and impeded flight^[4][13] displays, is one of the more common forms of distraction.^[1] In broken-wing displays, birds that are at the nest walk away from it with wings quivering so as to appear as an easy target for a predator.^[13][24] Such injury-feigning displays are particularly well known in nesting waders and plovers, but also have been documented in other species, including snowy owls,^[19] the alpine accentor,^[24] and the mourning dove.^[31] Impeded flight displays additionally may suggest an injured wing, but through an airborne display.

False brooding is an approach used by plovers. The bird moves away from the nest site and crouches on the ground so as to appear to be sitting at a nonexistent nest and allows the predator to approach closely before escaping.^[13][17][29] Another display seen in plovers,^[13] as well as some passerine birds,^[14][15] is the rodent run, in which the nesting bird ruffles its back feathers, crouches, and runs away from the predator. This display resembles the flight response of a small rodent.^[14]

It has additionally been postulated that threat displays, such as gaping by the Caprimulgidae and wing-extension by the killdeer, and sexual displays, such as courtship dancing by stilts, can become incorporated into distraction displays where the bird is feigning injury. In both cases the incorporated components may increase conspicuousness, resulting in a more effective distraction display.^[1]

In fish

Stickleback fish have been documented performing distraction displays. A nesting male

Risks

While animals performing distraction displays are rarely documented as being killed, risks to the displaying animal do exist.^[32] One researcher observed and documented an instance in which a second predator became attracted to an animal already performing a distraction display. The displaying animal was killed by the second predator.^[32]

Additionally, it has been shown that some predators are "smart", or have learned to recognize that distraction displays indicate a nearby nest. One study recorded a red fox that increased its searching behavior in response to the distraction display of a grouse and eventually found and killed the grouse nestlings.^[27]

Factors influencing decision

Given these risks, an animal must decide when distraction display is an appropriate response to a predator. Researchers have found several important factors that appear to influence the decision to use a distraction display and the intensity of the display, although it is not evident that these factors are taken into consideration consciously by the displaying animal.^[20][29]

Several considerations involving the predator have been shown to be important, including the distance of the predator from the nest. Intensity of display has been shown to decrease as the distance of the predator from the nest increases, perhaps representing the balancing of risk to the displaying parent and to the vulnerable young.^[25] The type of predator has also been shown to be of importance,^[17] with birds tending to display most intensely to ground-dwelling carnivores and less intensely to humans and flying predators.^[13][22][33] Finally, the number of potential predators has also been shown to be important in sticklebacks, in which frequency of distraction displaying by the male is positively correlated with the number of conspecifics in a foraging shoal.^[8]

In addition, the presence of a second parent at the nest correlates with increased display intensity, perhaps representing a diluted predation risk.^[26] The number of potential extra-pair mobbers has also been shown to marginally increase the intensity of the display, again representing a possible dilution of risk to each of the animals engaging in the distraction.^[25]

Third, the timing of distraction display as a correlate of nestling age has been a matter of particular interest in birds, with study results showing that the age at which displays are performed differs in species with

Lastly, game theory has been employed to explain how grouse may decide to display or not based on proxies for the abundance of "smart" predators, such as abundance of rodents in the preceding year.^[27] In this particular study, it was assumed that a greater abundance of rodents in one year may result in higher birth rates among foxes, which feed on the rodents, and therefore a greater population of one-year-old foxes in the following year. Yearling foxes are not yet experienced enough grouse hunters to be considered "smart". As such, distraction display may be a profitable strategy for the grouse in years following rodent population booms, as there is less risk of encountering a "smart" predator. However, a low rodent population in a given year may result in lower birth rates among foxes for that year, thereby resulting in a higher proportion of older, more experienced foxes in the population in the following year. In such a case, grouse may profit from not displaying, as they are more likely to encounter a "smart" predator.^[27]

See also

• Animal cognition
• Anti-predator adaptation
• Displacement
• Mobbing
• Sexual display
• Threat display

References