Autogyro
An autogyro (from Greek αὐτός and γύρος, "self-turning"), or gyroplane, is a class of rotorcraft that uses an unpowered rotor in free autorotation to develop lift. While similar to a helicopter rotor in appearance, the autogyro's unpowered rotor disc must have air flowing upward across it to make it rotate.
Forward thrust is provided independently, by an engine-driven propeller.
It was originally named the autogiro by its Spanish inventor and engineer,
The success of the
Principle of operation
An autogyro is characterized by a free-spinning rotor that turns because of the passage of air through the rotor from below.[5][6] The downward component of the total aerodynamic reaction of the rotor gives lift to the vehicle, sustaining it in the air. A separate propeller provides forward thrust and can be placed in a puller configuration, with the engine and propeller at the front of the fuselage, or in a pusher configuration, with the engine and propeller at the rear of the fuselage.
Whereas a helicopter works by forcing the rotor blades through the air, drawing air from above, the autogyro rotor blade generates lift in the same way as a
External videos | |
---|---|
Takeoffs and Landings on YouTube of Pitcairn PA-36 in 1941 |
Because the craft must be moving forward with respect to the surrounding air to force air through the overhead rotor, autogyros are generally not capable of vertical takeoff (except in a strong headwind). A few types such as the Air & Space 18A have shown short takeoff or landing.
Pitch control is achieved by tilting the rotor
Flight controls
There are three primary flight controls: control stick, rudder pedals, and throttle. Typically, the control stick is termed the cyclic and tilts the rotor in the desired direction to provide pitch and roll control (some autogyros do not tilt the rotor relative to the airframe, or only do so in one dimension, and have conventional control surfaces to vary the remaining degrees of freedom). The rudder pedals provide yaw control, and the throttle controls engine power.
Secondary flight controls include the rotor transmission clutch, also known as a pre-rotator, which when engaged drives the rotor to start it spinning before takeoff, and
Pusher vs tractor configuration
Modern autogyros typically follow one of two basic configurations. The most common design is the pusher configuration, where the engine and propeller are located behind the pilot and rotor mast, such as in the Bensen "Gyrocopter". Its main advantages are the simplicity and lightness of its construction and the unobstructed visibility. It was developed by Igor Bensen in the decades following World War II, who also founded the Popular Rotorcraft Association (PRA) to help it become more widespread.[11]
Less common today is the tractor configuration. In this version, the engine and propeller are located at the front of the aircraft, ahead of the pilot and rotor mast. This was the primary configuration in early autogyros but became less common after the advent of the autogyro. Nonetheless, the tractor configuration has some advantages compared to a pusher, namely greater yaw stability (as the center of mass is farther away from the rudder), and greater ease in aligning the center of thrust with the center of mass to prevent "bunting" (engine thrust overwhelming the pitch control).[12]
History
Juan de la Cierva was a Spanish engineer, inventor, pilot, and aeronautical enthusiast. In 1921, he participated in a design competition to develop a bomber for the Spanish military. De la Cierva designed a three-engined aircraft, but during an early test flight, the bomber stalled and crashed. De la Cierva was troubled by the stall phenomenon and vowed to develop an aircraft that could fly safely at low airspeeds. The result was the first successful rotorcraft, which he named autogiro in 1923.[13] De la Cierva's autogiro used an airplane fuselage with a forward-mounted propeller and engine, an un-powered rotor mounted on a mast, and a horizontal and vertical stabilizer. His aircraft became the predecessor of the modern helicopter.[14]
Early development
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2011) |
After four years of experimentation, de la Cierva invented the first practical rotorcraft the autogyro (autogiro in Spanish), in 1923. His first three designs (C.1, C.2, and C.3) were unstable because of aerodynamic and structural deficiencies in their rotors. His fourth design, the C.4, made the first documented flight of an autogyro on 17 January 1923, piloted by Alejandro Gomez Spencer at Cuatro Vientos airfield in Madrid, Spain (9 January according to de la Cierva).[6]
De la Cierva had fitted the rotor of the C.4 with flapping hinges to attach each rotor blade to the hub. The flapping hinges allowed each rotor blade to flap, or move up and down, to compensate for dissymmetry of lift, the difference in lift produced between the right and left sides of the rotor as the autogyro moves forward.[13][15] Three days later, the engine failed shortly after takeoff and the aircraft descended slowly and steeply to a safe landing, validating de la Cierva's efforts to produce an aircraft that could be flown safely at low airspeeds.
De la Cierva developed his
A crash in February 1926, caused by blade root failure, led to an improvement in rotor hub design. A drag hinge was added in conjunction with the flapping hinge to allow each blade to move fore and aft and relieve in-plane stresses, generated as a byproduct of the flapping motion. This development led to the Cierva C.8, which, on 18 September 1928, made the first rotorcraft crossing of the English Channel followed by a tour of Europe.
United States industrialist
In 1927, German engineer Engelbert Zaschka invented a combined helicopter and autogyro. The principal advantage of the Zaschka machine is its ability to remain motionless in the air for any length of time and to descend in a vertical line so that a landing could be accomplished on the flat roof of a large house. In appearance, the machine does not differ much from the ordinary monoplane, but the carrying wings revolve around the body.
Development of the autogyro continued in the search for a means to accelerate the rotor before takeoff (called prerotating). Rotor drives initially took the form of a rope wrapped around the rotor axle and then pulled by a team of men to accelerate the rotor – this was followed by a long taxi to bring the rotor up to speed sufficient for takeoff. The next innovation was flaps on the tail to redirect the propeller slipstream into the rotor while on the ground. This design was first tested on a C.19 in 1929. Efforts in 1930 had shown that the development of a light and efficient mechanical transmission was not a trivial undertaking. In 1932 the Pitcairn-Cierva Autogiro Company of Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, United States solved this problem with a transmission driven by the engine.
De la Cierva's early autogyros were fitted with fixed rotor hubs, small fixed wings, and control surfaces like those of a fixed-wing aircraft. At low airspeeds, the control surfaces became ineffective and could readily lead to loss of control, particularly during landing. In response, de la Cierva developed a direct control rotor hub, which could be tilted in any direction by the pilot. De la Cierva's direct control was first developed on the Cierva C.19 Mk. V and saw the production on the
Later that year, during the leftist Asturias revolt in October, an autogyro made a reconnaissance flight for the loyal troops, marking the first military employment of a rotorcraft.[19]
When improvements in helicopters made them practical, autogyros became largely neglected. Also, they were susceptible to ground resonance.[15] They were, however, used in the 1930s by major newspapers, and by the United States Postal Service for the mail service between cities in the northeast.[20]
Winter War
During the Winter War of 1939–1940, the Red Army Air Force used armed Kamov A-7 autogyros to provide fire correction for artillery batteries, carrying out 20 combat flights.[21] The A-7 was the first rotary-wing aircraft designed for combat,[22] armed with one 7.62×54mmR PV-1 machine gun, a pair of Degtyaryov machine guns, and six RS-82 rockets or four FAB-100 bombs.
World War II
The
In World War II, Germany pioneered a very small gyroglider rotor kite, the Focke-Achgelis Fa 330 "Bachstelze" (wagtail), towed by U-boats to provide aerial surveillance.
The Imperial Japanese Army developed the Kayaba Ka-1 autogyro for reconnaissance, artillery-spotting, and anti-submarine uses. The Ka-1 was based on the Kellett KD-1 first imported to Japan in 1938. The craft was initially developed for use as an observation platform and for artillery spotting duties. The army liked the craft's short take-off span, and especially its low maintenance requirements. Production began in 1941, with the machines assigned to artillery units for spotting the fall of shells. These carried two crewmen: a pilot and a spotter.
Later, the Japanese Army commissioned two small aircraft carriers intended for coastal antisubmarine (ASW) duties. The spotter's position on the Ka-1 was modified to carry one small depth charge. Ka-1 ASW autogyros operated from shore bases as well as the two small carriers. They appear to have been responsible for at least one submarine sinking.
With the beginning of German invasion in USSR June 1941, the Soviet Air Force organized new courses for training Kamov A-7 aircrew and ground support staff. In August 1941, per the decision of the chief artillery directorate of the Red Army, based on the trained flight group and five combat-ready A-7 autogyros, the 1st autogyro artillery spotting aircraft squadron was formed, which was included in the strength of the 24th Army of the Soviet Air Force, combat active in the area around Elnya near Smolensk. From 30 August to 5 October 1941 the autogyros made 19 combat sorties for artillery spotting. Not one autogyro was lost in action, while the unit was disbanded in 1942 due to the shortage of serviceable aircraft.[21]
Postwar developments
The autogyro was resurrected after World War II when Dr.
Ken Wallis developed a miniature autogyro craft, the Wallis autogyro, in England in the 1960s, and autogyros built similar to Wallis' design appeared for many years. Ken Wallis' designs have been used in various scenarios, including military training, police reconnaissance, and in a search for the Loch Ness Monster, as well as an appearance in the 1967 James Bond movie You Only Live Twice.
Three different autogyro designs have been certified by the
The Kaman KSA-100 SAVER (Stowable Aircrew Vehicle Escape Rotorseat) is an aircraft-stowable gyroplane escape device designed and built for the United States Navy. Designed to be installed in naval combat aircraft as part of the ejection sequence, only one example was built and it did not enter service. It was powered by a Williams WRC-19 turbofan making it the first jet-powered autogyro.
Bensen Gyrocopter
The basic Bensen Gyrocopter design is a simple frame of square aluminium or galvanized steel tubing, reinforced with triangles of lighter tubing. It is arranged so that the stress falls on the tubes, or special fittings, not the bolts. A front-to-back keel mounts a steerable nosewheel, seat, engine, and vertical stabilizer. Outlying mainwheels are mounted on an axle. Some versions may mount seaplane-style floats for water operations.
Bensen-type autogyros use a pusher configuration for simplicity and to increase visibility for the pilot. Power can be supplied by a variety of engines. McCulloch drone engines, Rotax marine engines, Subaru automobile engines, and other designs have been used in Bensen-type designs.[citation needed]
The rotor is mounted atop the vertical mast. The rotor system of all Bensen-type autogyros is of a two-blade teetering design. There are some disadvantages associated with this rotor design, but the simplicity of the rotor design lends itself to ease of assembly and maintenance and is one of the reasons for its popularity. Aircraft-quality birch was specified in early Bensen designs, and a wood/steel composite is used in the world-speed-record-holding Wallis design. Gyroplane rotor blades are made from other materials such as
Bensen's success triggered several other designs, some of them fatally flawed with an offset between the
21st-century development and use
In 2002, a
Worldwide, over 1,000 autogyros are used by authorities for military and law enforcement. The first U.S. police authorities to evaluate an autogyro were the
Since 2009, several projects in
In 18 months from 2009 to 2010, the German pilot couple Melanie and Andreas Stützfor undertook the first world tour by autogyro, in which they flew several different gyroplane types in Europe, southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and South America. The adventure was documented in the book "WELTFLUG – The Gyroplane Dream" and in the film "Weltflug.tv –The Gyrocopter World Tour".[37]
Helicopter autogyration
While autogyros are not helicopters, helicopters are capable of
Certification by national aviation authorities
United Kingdom certification
Some autogyros, such as the Rotorsport MT03,
In 2005, the CAA issued a mandatory permit directive (MPD) which restricted operations for single-seat autogyros and were subsequently integrated into CAP643 Issue 3 published on 12 August 2005.
- Aircraft with a cockpit/nacelle may be operated only by pilots with more than 50 hours of solo flight experience following the issue of their licence.
- Open-frame aircraft are restricted to a minimum speed of 30 mph (48 km/h; 26 kn), except in the flare.
- All aircraft are restricted to a Vne(maximum airspeed) of 70 mph (110 km/h; 61 kn)
- Flight is not permitted when surface winds exceed 17 mph (27 km/h; 15 kn) or if the gust spread exceeds 12 mph (19 km/h; 10 kn)
- Flight is not permitted in moderate, severe, or extreme turbulence and airspeed must be reduced to 63 mph (101 km/h; 55 kn) if turbulence is encountered mid-flight.
These restrictions do not apply to autogyros with type approval under CAA CAP643 Section T, which are subject to the operating limits specified in the type approval.
United States certification
A certificated autogyro must meet mandated stability and control criteria; in the United States these are outlined in Federal Aviation Regulations Part 27: Airworthiness Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft.[44] The U.S.
World records
In 1931, Amelia Earhart (U.S.) flew a Pitcairn PCA-2 to a women's world altitude record of 18,415 ft (5,613 m).[46]
Until 2019, the autogyro was one of the last remaining types of aircraft which had not yet
The attempt was finally abandoned because of bad weather after having covered 7,500 miles (12,100 km).As of 2014[update], Andrew Keech (U.S.) holds several records. He made a transcontinental flight in his self-built Little Wing Autogyro "Woodstock" from Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, to San Diego, California, in October 2003, breaking the record set 72 years earlier by Johnny Miller in a Pitcairn PCA-2. He also set three world records for speed over a recognized course.[52] On 9 February 2006 he broke two of his world records and set a record for distance, ratified by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI): Speed over a closed circuit of 500 km (311 mi) without payload: 168.29 km/h (104.57 mph),[53] speed over a closed circuit of 1,000 km (621 mi) without payload: 165.07 km/h (102.57 mph),[54] and distance over a closed circuit without landing: 1,019.09 km (633.23 mi).[55][56]
On 7 November 2015, the Italian astrophysicist and pilot Donatella Ricci took off with a MagniGyro M16 from the Caposile aerodrome in Venice, aiming to set a new altitude world record. She reached an altitude of 8,138.46 m (26,701 ft), breaking the women's world altitude record held for 84 years by Amelia Earhart. The following day, she increased the altitude by a further 261 m, reaching 8,399 m (27,556 ft), setting the new altitude world record with an autogyro. She improved by 350 m (+4.3%) the preceding record established by Andrew Keech in 2004.[57]
Year | Pilot | Record type | Record | Aircraft | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1998 | Ken Wallis (U.K.) | Time to climb 3000m | 7:20 min[47] | Wallis Type WA-121/Mc (G-BAHH) | |
2002 | Ken Wallis (U.K.) | Speed over a 3 km course | 207.7 km/h[49] | Wallis Type WA-121/Mc (G-BAHH) | Oldest pilot to set the record |
2015 | Donatella Ricci (ITA) | Altitude | 8399 m[57] | Magni M16 – Rotax 914 engine | |
2015 | Paul A Salmon (USA) | Distance without landing | 1653.0 km[58] | Magni M22-Missing Link II (N322MG) | 10 November 2015 |
2015 | Norman Surplus (U.K.) | First crossing of the Atlantic Ocean[59] | 5.3 km/h[59] | Autogyro MT-03
(G-YROX) |
11 August
2015 |
2019 | Norman Surplus (U.K.) | First physical circumnavigation of the world [60][61][62]
(4 years 28 days) |
not submitted for speed record | Autogyro MT-03
(G-YROX) |
28 June
2019 |
2019 | James Ketchell (U.K.) | First circumnavigation of the world[63] and speed around the world, eastbound[64] | 44,450 km | Magni M16C
(G-KTCH) |
22 September 2019 |
Norman Surplus, from Larne in Northern Ireland, became the second person to attempt a world circumnavigation by gyroplane/autogyro type aircraft on 22 March 2010, flying a Rotorsport UK MT-03 Autogyro, registered G-YROX. Surplus was unable to get permission to enter Russian airspace from Japan, but he established nine world autogyro records on his flight between Northern Ireland and Japan between 2010 and 2011. FAI world records for autogyro flight.[65]
G-YROX was delayed (by the Russian impasse) in Japan for over three years before being shipped across the Pacific to the state of
After a nine-year wait (since 2010), permission to fly U.K. registered gyroplanes through the Russian Federation was finally approved, and on 22 April 2019, Surplus and G-YROX continued eastwards from Larne, Northern Ireland, to cross Northern Europe and rendezvous with fellow gyroplane pilot James Ketchell piloting Magni M16 Gyroplane G-KTCH. Flying in loose formation the two aircraft made the first Trans-Russia flight by gyroplane together to reach the
Over the nine years it had taken Surplus to complete the task, G-YROX flew 27,000 nautical miles (50,000 km) through 32 countries.
The first physical circumnavigation of the globe by an Autogyro, Oregon to Oregon, had taken Surplus and G-YROX, four years and 28 days to complete, after being dogged by long diplomatic delays in gaining the necessary permission to fly across Russian Federation Airspace. However, as the flight had been severely stalled and interrupted en-route by lengthy delays it was no longer deemed eligible for setting a first, continuously flown, speed record around the world and so this task was then left to James Ketchell to complete, by setting a first official speed record flight around the world for an Autogyro type aircraft, some three months later.
Subsequently, on 22 September 2019, Ketchell was awarded the world record from the Guinness World Records as the first circumnavigation of the world in an autogyro[63] and from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale for the first certified "Speed around the World, Eastbound" circumnavigation in an E-3a Autogyro. He completed his journey in 175 days.[64]
See also
References
- ^ Goebel, Greg (1 June 2011), "European Helicopter Pioneers", Air Vectors, archived from the original on 5 February 2012
- ISBN 978-0-7603-2392-2. Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-405-51610-5. Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
- ^ "Pitcairn-Cierva PCA-1A". National Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
- ^ a b Bensen, Igor. "How they fly - Bensen explains all". Archived from the original on 9 January 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
air ... (is) deflected downward
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ a b c Charnov, Bruce H. "Cierva, Pitcairn and the Legacy of Rotary-Wing Flight" (PDF). Hofstra University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2011.
- ^ Garrison, Peter (2 October 2015). "Mail Drop: Weird Gyroplane Facts". Flying Magazine. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 4 October 2015.
The operation of a gyroplane's freewheeling rotor is often compared to that of an autorotating helicopter's ... It's better to think about a glider, because what the gyroplane's rotor blades are doing is gliding around the central mast.
- ^ "Gyrocopter - What is it?". Phenix. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 8 December 2010.
- ^ Autorotation (definition) (unabridged v 1.1 ed.). Random House, Inc. Archived from the original on 17 March 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2007.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
:|website=
ignored (help) - ^ Gremminger, Greg. "HIGH VELOCITY CURVE for GYROPLANES". Magni Gyro. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 December 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
- ^ Garrison, Peter (2 October 2015). "Mail Drop: Gyroplane Facts". Flying Mag. Flying Magazine. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
- ^ Fietz, Ken. "The little wing autogyro". gyroplane passion. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
- ^ a b "Juan De La Cierva". Centennial of Flight Commission. 2003. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ Sack, Harald (21 September 2014). "Juan de la Cierva and the Autogiro". SciHi Blog. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
- ^ a b "The Contributions of the Autogyro". Centennial of Flight Commission. 2003. Archived from the original on 14 December 2010. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- ^ "EL PRIMER VIAJE DEL AUTOGIRO" Archived 10 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine MADRID CIENTIFICO, 1924. Nº 1128, página 9
- ^ Buhl Aircraft Company site=www.rcgroups.com Buhl A-1 autogyro – 1931 Archived 28 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine and The Buhl A-1 Autogiro Archived 8 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "The first Dedalo was an aircraft transportation ship and the first in the world from which an autogyro took off and landed." Naval Ship Systems Command, US: Naval Ship Systems Command technical news.1966, v. 15–16, page 40
- ISBN 0-299-13674-4
- ^ Pulle, Matt (5 July 2007). "Blade Runner". Dallas Observer. Vol. 27, no. 27. Dallas, Tx. pp. 19–27. Archived from the original on 2 October 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-910294-65-9. Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-4556-1568-1. Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ISBN 0-86341-139-8. Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
- ^ Jenkins, Dennis R.; Landis, Tony; Miller, Jay (June 2003). "Bensen Aircraft Corporation X-25" (PDF). American X-vehicles: an inventory, X-1 to X-50. NASA. p. 33. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2012.
- ^ O'Connor, Timothy. "This is Not Your Father's Gyroplane". Experimental Aircraft Association (EEA). Archived from the original on 15 March 2012. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- ^ "Olympic Security Aided by Groen Brothers' Hawk". Aero-News Network. 2 January 2002. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
- ^ Supgul, Alexander (22 March 2011). "Tomball Police Equipped with Gyroplane". Archived from the original on 19 August 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
- ^ Hauck, Robert S (July–August 2011). "Broadening Horizons" (PDF). Air Beat Magazine. pp. 52–54. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
- YouTube
- ^ Osborne, Tony (22 July 2011). "ALEA 2011: Autogyro debuts in the sky over Texas". Archived from the original on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
- ^ Hardigree, Matt (13 September 2011). "Flying the Police Aircraft of the Future". Wired. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
Hardigree, Matt (12 September 2011). "Flying the police aircraft of the future". Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2020. - ^ Bretting, Sandra (20 August 2011). "Gyroplanes in reach of non-millionaires". Houston Chronicle. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020.
- NTSB. 23 April 2014. Archived from the originalon 12 July 2014. Retrieved 16 May 2014.
- ^ "Iraq Defence & Security Summit 2012". The Aussie Aviator. 4 April 2012. Archived from the original on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Mohammed, Fryad (17 December 2011). "Kurdistan's traffic police to have helicopters". AKNews. Archived from the original on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
- ^ "5 Traffic Helicopters Arrive in Kurdistan". Iraq Business News. 28 February 2012. Archived from the original on 28 June 2012. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
- ^ "Weltflug – The Gyroplane Dream". Archived from the original on 25 August 2019. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
- ^ "How Helicopters Glide to the Ground When the Engine Cuts Out". Popular Mechanics. 14 November 2017. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 20 September 2022.
- United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2007.
- United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority. Archived from the original(PDF) on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2011.
- ^ United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2007.
- United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority. p. 20, Chapter 3, Section 5. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2007.
- ^ Van Wagenen, Juliet (31 October 2014). "CAA Removes Overflight Restrictions on Gyroplanes". Aviation Today. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
- ^ "Current FAR by Part". Federal Aviation Administration. Archived from the original on 23 June 2001. Retrieved 13 November 2007.
- ^ "Experimental Category Operating Amateur-built, Kit-built, or Light-sport Aircraft". Federal Aviation Administration. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2007.
- ^ "Achievements". Official Amelia Earhart website. Archived from the original on 22 December 2007. Retrieved 9 January 2008.
- ^ a b "FAI Record ID #5346 – Autogyro, Time to climb to a height of 3000 m". Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 28 November 2013.
- ^ "FAI Record ID #303 – Autogyro, Speed over a straight 15/25 km course". Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 28 November 2013.
- ^ a b "FAI Record ID #7601 – Autogyro, Speed over a 3 km course". Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 28 November 2013.
- ^ "Nottingham Features – Magnigyro record attempt". BBC. 5 September 2002. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
- ^ "The Eagle has landed – but pilot vows to try again". Yorkshire Post. 21 October 2004. Archived from the original on 23 August 2019. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
- ^ "Class E (Rotorcraft) record claims ratified". Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. 26 February 2004. Archived from the original on 12 September 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2014. 1 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine 2 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine 1+2 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "FAI Record ID #13113 – Speed over a closed circuit of 500 km without payload Archived 13 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine" Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 12 September 2014.
- ^ "FAI Record ID #13115 – Speed over a closed circuit of 1000 km without payload Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine" Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 12 September 2014.
- ^ "FAI Record ID #13111 – Speed over a closed circuit without landing Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine" Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 12 September 2014.
- ^ "History of Records: Andrew C. KEECH (USA)". Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Retrieved 11 January 2011.[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b Bianchi, Simone (8 November 2015). "Donatella Ricci, record di volo con l'"autogiro"". Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2020.
- ^ "FAI Record ID #17745 – Autogyro, distance without landing Archived 24 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine" Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 22 November 2015.
- ^ a b "Norman Frank Surplus (GBR) (17629)". www.fai.org. 10 October 2017. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
- ^ "First autogyro round-the-world trip completed by Larne pilot". BBC News. 29 June 2019. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
- ^ Tye, Dan (2 July 2019). "Norman Surplus completes round-the-world autogyro adventure". Adventure 52. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
- ^ Basken, Christina (25 July 2019). "Whirling Around the World — Taking a Gyroplane on a Worldwide Journey". Hangar Flying. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
- ^ a b "First circumnavigation by autogyro". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 30 July 2021. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
- ^ a b "James Ketchell (GBR) (19101)". www.fai.org. 30 September 2019. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
- ^ Norman Surplus (GYROX) list on FAI: 1 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine 2 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine 3 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine 4 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine 5 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine 6 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine 7 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine 8 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine 9 Archived 12 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- "15–22". Rotorcraft Flying Handbook, FAA Manual H-8083-21 (PDF). Washington, DC: Flight Standards Service, ISBN 1-56027-404-2. Archived from the original(PDF) on 27 October 2012.
- Andreas G. Stuetz (2013). Weltflug: The Gyroplane Dream. Createspace Independent Pub. ISBN 978-1-4937-6094-7.
- Charnov, Bruce H. (2006). A Critical Re-Examination of the Franklin Institute Rotating Wing Aircraft Meeting of October 28 – 29, 1938: Facts and Myths Surrounding the Foundations of Autogiro/Convertiplane/Helicopter Development in America and Europe (PDF). American Helicopter Society 62nd Annual Forum. Phoenix, Arizona: American Helicopter Society International, Inc.
Further reading
- "Development of the Autogiro : A Technical Perspective" : J. Gordon Leishman: Hofstra University, New York, 2003.
- Jeff Lewis' in-depth history of the Autogyro
- Popular Rotorcraft Association Archived 7 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine (United States)
- "Will Autogiro Banish Present Plane?". Popular Science. March 1931. p. 28.
- "Feathering of Blades Increase Gyro's Speed". Popular Mechanics. Hearst Magazines. April 1932. p. 538.