History of baseball
Part of a series on the |
History of baseball |
---|
By country |
|
International competitions |
|
Other topics |
Related games |
Baseball portal |
The history of baseball can be broken down into various aspects: by era, by locale, by organizational-type, game evolution, as well as by political and cultural influence. The game evolved from older bat-and-ball games already being played in England by the mid-18th century. This game was brought by immigrants to North America, where the modern version developed. By the late 19th century, baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the United States. Baseball is popular in North America and parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, and East Asia, particularly in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.
References to baseball date back to the 1700s when in England it was referenced in 1744 in the children's book A Little Pretty Pocket-Book by John Newberry, though he was actually referring to the game "rounders". In the early 1800s "baseball" and a game first mentioned in 1828 as the aforementioned "rounders" may have been the same or very similar. During the 1830s and 1840s organized amateur club baseball grew up in eastern United States cities; however, the first official baseball game with a documented score card took place not in the US, but in Canada in 1838 The first “baseball” game ever played. While Canada invented the version of baseball we know today, innovations made by New York City clubs became the basis for the modern game, far removed from its English ancestor, but extremely similar to the Canadian version. These clubs formed a national governing body with uniform rules in 1858, the National Association of Base Ball Players. In 1871 the first professional league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, was founded. Five years later, the National League was created; it was followed by the American League in 1901. The first World Series between the champions of the two major leagues was held in 1903, and by 1905 it became an annual event. Baseball early in the 20th century was characterized by low-scoring games, but the dead-ball era ended in the early 1920s with rule changes and the rise of power hitter Babe Ruth. The major leagues had a color barrier that lasted until 1947, when Jackie Robinson made his debut. The major leagues began the process of expansion in 1961 and attendance increased from the mid-1970s to 1994, when a work stoppage led to the cancellation of the World Series.
Professional baseball leagues featured teams from Canada as early as 1877, and the sport spread to numerous countries in the 1800s and 1900s. It was played in the Olympics as a
Origins
The evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision. A French manuscript from 1344 contains an illustration of clerics playing a game, possibly la soule, with similarities to baseball.[1] Other old French games such as thèque, la balle au bâton, and la balle empoisonnée also appear to be related.[2] Consensus once held that today's baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders, popular in Great Britain and Ireland. Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game (2005), by David Block, suggests that the game originated in England; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position. Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each other, and that the game's most direct antecedents are the English games of stoolball and "tut-ball".[3] It has long been believed that cricket also descended from such games, though evidence uncovered in early 2009 suggests that cricket may have been imported to England from Flanders.[4]
The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British children's publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John Newbery. It contains a rhymed description of "base-ball" and a woodcut that shows a field set-up somewhat similar to the modern game—though in a triangular rather than diamond configuration, and with posts instead of ground-level bases.[6] Block discovered that the first recorded game of "Base-Ball" took place in 1749 in Surrey, and featured the Prince of Wales as a player.[7] William Bray, an English lawyer, recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford, Surrey.[8] This early form of the game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants. Rounders was also brought to the United States by Canadians of both British and Irish ancestry. The first known American reference to baseball appears in a 1791 Pittsfield, Massachusetts town bylaw prohibiting the playing of the game near the town's new meeting house.[9] By 1796, a version of the game was well known enough to earn a mention in a German scholar's book on popular pastimes. As described by Johann Gutsmuths, "englische Base-ball" involved a contest between two teams, in which "the batter has three attempts to hit the ball while at the home plate." Only one out was required to retire a side.[10]
In 1828, William Clarke in
By the early 1830s, there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat-and-ball games recognizable as early forms of baseball being played around North America. These games were often referred to locally as "town ball", though other names such as "round-ball" and "base-ball" were also used.[13] Among the earliest examples to receive a detailed description—albeit five decades after the fact, in a letter from an attendee to Sporting Life magazine—took place in Beachville, Ontario, in 1838. There were many similarities to modern baseball, and some crucial differences: five bases (or byes); first bye just 18 feet (5.5 m) from the home bye; batter out if a hit ball was caught after the first bounce.[14]
The once widely accepted story that US Army officer[15] Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839 has been conclusively debunked by sports historians.[16] The Doubleday myth appeared after a dispute arose about the origins of baseball and whether it had been invented in the United States or developed as a variation of rounders.[17] The theory that the sport was created in the U.S. was backed by Chicago Cubs president Albert Spalding and National League president Abraham G. Mills. In 1889, Mills gave a speech declaring that baseball was American, which he said was determined through "patriotism and research"; a crowd of about 300 people responding by chanting "No rounders!"[17] The rounders theory was supported by prominent sportswriter Henry Chadwick, a native of Britain who noted common factors between rounders and baseball in a 1903 article.[18] In 1905, Spalding called for an investigation into how the sport was invented. Chadwick supported the idea, and later in the year the Mills commission was formed. Spalding instructed the commission to decide between the American game of "Old Cat" and rounders as baseball's predecessor. Seven men served on the commission, including Mills. Spalding chose the committee's members, picking men who supported his theory and excluding supporters of the rounders claim, such as Chadwick.[19]
In 1845, Alexander Cartwright, a member of New York City's Knickerbocker Club, produced a code of baseball rules now called the Knickerbocker Rules.[20] The practice, common to bat-and-ball games of the day, of "soaking" or "plugging"—effecting a putout by hitting a runner with a thrown ball—was barred. The rules thus facilitated the use of a smaller, harder ball than had been common. Several other rules also brought the Knickerbockers' game close to the modern one, though a ball caught on the first bounce was, again, an out and only underhand pitching was allowed.[21] While there are reports that the New York Knickerbockers played games in 1845, the contest long recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in U.S. history took place on June 19, 1846, in Hoboken, New Jersey: the "New York Nine" defeated the Knickerbockers, 23–1, in four innings.[22] With the Knickerbocker code as the basis, the rules of modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half-century.[23]
In the United States
Professional leagues develop
In the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the New York metropolitan area.
The more formally structured
A modicum of peace was eventually established, leading to the National Agreement of 1903. The pact formalized relations both between the two major leagues and between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of the country's
As professional baseball became increasingly profitable, players frequently raised grievances against owners over issues of control and equitable income distribution. During the major leagues' early decades, players on various teams occasionally attempted
During the first decades of the 20th century, the MLB only consisted of white players. African Americans have played baseball since it first spread across the country. However, they were unable to play in the MLB because of segregation and racial tensions. That caused them to create their own leagues, known now as the Negro Leagues. Despite the discrimination and unequal treatment, these leagues became extremely popular. Some of the most legendary teams were the Kansas City Monarchs, Homestead Grays, and Birmingham Black Barons. They attracted large electric crowds and were known for their tough competitions. The Negro League teams served as large contributors to their communities black pride and unity. They spread sources of joy and inspiration during segregation, which was a dark time for our country. Eventually these leagues came to an end after the color barriers of the MLB were dropped, but their legacy long lives on.
Rise of Ruth and integration
Compared with the present, professional baseball in the early 20th century was lower-scoring, and pitchers, including stars
With America's entry into World War II, many professional players had left to serve in the armed forces. A large number of minor league teams disbanded as a result and the major league game seemed under threat as well.
Facing competition as varied as television and football, baseball attendance at all levels declined. While the majors rebounded by the mid-1950s, the minor leagues were gutted and hundreds of semipro and amateur teams dissolved.[59][60] Integration proceeded slowly: by 1953, only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player on the roster.[57] That year, the Major League Baseball Players Association was founded. It was the first professional baseball union to survive more than briefly, but it remained largely ineffective for years.[61] No major league team had been located west of St. Louis until 1958, when the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants relocated to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively.[62] The majors' final all-white bastion, the Boston Red Sox, added a black player in 1959.[57] With the integration of the majors drying up the available pool of players, the last Negro league folded the following year.[63] In 1961, the American League reached the West Coast with the Los Angeles Angels expansion team, and the major league season was extended from 154 games to 162. This coincidentally helped Roger Maris break Babe Ruth's long-standing single-season home run record, one of the most celebrated marks in baseball.[64] Along with the Angels, three other new franchises were launched during 1961–62. With this, the first major league expansion in 60 years, each league now had ten teams.[65]
With so much talent and athleticism in the Negro Leagues, black players wanted a chance to prove themseleves and compete with the best of the best in the MLB. A big stepping stone of integration was the death of commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis, who played a large role in keeping the MLB segregated… He faced much intense racism and discrimination on and off the field. Despite this he succeeded in his effort to pave the way for other African Americans to follow in his footsteps. The integration of the MLB was such a huge moment for sports, but was even bigger for society. This was a huge moment in the fight for civil rights and desegregation. Prior to this baseball, along with many other aspects of American society, had been racially separated. Because of this and many other people, moments, and actions, segregation was abolished.
Attendance records, the age of today
The players' union became bolder under the leadership of former
The addition of two more expansion teams after the 1993 season had facilitated another restructuring of the major leagues, this time into three divisions each. Offensive production—the number of home runs in particular—had surged that year, and again in the abbreviated 1994 season.[72] After play resumed in 1995, this trend continued and one non-division-winning wild card team and a second tier of the playoffs, the League Division Series was added, in addition to both leagues now having three divisions each (with the addition of the Central Division). Regular-season interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second-highest attendance mark for a full season was set.[73] The next year, Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa both surpassed Maris's decades-old single-season home run record, and two more expansion franchises were added. In 2000, the National and American Leagues were dissolved as legal entities. While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes (and the designated hitter distinction until 2022), the regulations and other functions—such as player discipline and umpire supervision—they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of Major League Baseball (MLB).[74]
In 2001,
Before the start of the 2012 season, MLB altered its rules to double the number of wild card teams admitted into the playoffs to two per league.
Around the world
Baseball, widely known as America's pastime, is well established in several other countries as well. The history of baseball in Canada has remained closely linked with that of the sport in the United States. As early as 1877, a professional league, the International Association, featured teams from both countries.[87] While baseball is widely played in Canada and many minor league teams have been based in the country,[88][89] the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969, when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an expansion team. In 1977, the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League. The Blue Jays won the World Series in 1992 and 1993, the first and still the only club from outside the United States to do so. After the 2004 season, Major League Baseball relocated the Expos to Washington, D.C., where the team is now known as the Nationals.[90]
In 1847, American soldiers played what may have been the first baseball game in Mexico at
After World War II, professional leagues were founded in many Latin American countries, most prominently
Many European countries have professional leagues as well, the most successful, other than the
After being admitted to the Olympics as a
References
- ^ Block (2005), pp. 106–108.
- ^ Block (2005), pp. 71–72, 75, 89, 147–149, 150, 160, et seq.
- ^ Block (2005), pp. 86, 87, 111–113, 118–121, 135–138, 144, 160; Rader (2008), p. 7.
- ^ Mason, Chris (2009-03-02). "Cricket 'Was Invented in Belgium'". BBC News. Archived from the original on March 2, 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-03.
- ^ "Save rounders! It's the only sport for people who hate sport". The Telegraph. April 6, 2018.
- ^ Block (2005), pp. 139, 140, 151, 164, 178, 179, et seq.; Hellier, Cathy. "Mr. Newbery's Little Pretty Pocket-Book". Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. Retrieved 2008-04-12. See Wikisource edition of A Little Pretty Pocket-Book.
- ^ "Why isn't baseball more popular in the UK?". BBC News. 2013-07-26. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
- ^ "Major League Baseball Told: Your Sport Is British, Not American". The Daily Telegraph. London. September 11, 2008. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
- ^ Block (2005), pp. 58, 160, 300, 307, 310; Miller, Doug (August 2, 2005). "Pittsfield: Small City, Big Baseball Town". Major League Baseball. Archived from the original on March 21, 2006. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
- ^ Block (2005), pp. 67–75, 181; Gutsmuths quoted: p. 86.
- ^ David Block (2006) “Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game” p. 192. University of Nebraska Press.
- ^ "The Boys Own Book by William Clarke". Maine Historical Society. Retrieved April 6, 2019
- ^ Block (2005), pp. 4–5, 11–15, 25, 33, 59–61, et. seq.
- ^ Sullivan (1997), pp. 9–11.
- ^ "The Doubleday myth is Cooperstown's gain: Pastoral village has become the heart of baseball folklore". National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. Archived from the original on September 26, 2014. Retrieved September 20, 2012.
- ^ Block (2005), pp. xiv–xix, 15–18, 32–38, 42–47, et seq.; Rader (2008), pp. 7, 93–94.
- ^ a b Seymour (1989), pp. 8–9.
- ^ Seymour (1989), p. 9.
- ^ Ryczek, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Sullivan (1997), p. 292.
- ^ Block (2005), p. 84; Koppett (2004), p. 2; Rader (2008), p. 8; Sullivan (1997), p. 10.
- ^ Sullivan (1997), pp. 32, 80, 95.
- ^ Tygiel (2000), pp. 8–14; Rader (2008), pp. 71–72.
- ^ Rader (2008), pp. 9, 10.
- ^ Tygiel (2000), p. 6.
- ^ Crown, Daniel (2017-10-19). "The Battle Between Baseball and Cricket for American Sporting Supremacy". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 2023-01-05.
- ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2023-01-05.
- ^ Rader (2008), p. 27; Sullivan (1997), pp. 68, 69.
- ^ Sullivan (1997), pp. 43, 73.
- ^ Sullivan (1997), pp. 83–87.
- ^ Sullivan (1997), pp. 83, 130, 243.
- ^ Zoss (2004), p. 136.
- ^ Zoss (2004), p. 102.
- ^ Sullivan (1997), p. 115.
- ^ a b Rader (2008), p. 71.
- ^ Heaphy, Leslie, "Women Playing Hardball", in Baseball and Philosophy: Thinking Outside the Batter's Box, ed. Eric Bronson (Open Court, 2004), pp. 246–256 [247]
- ^ Sullivan (1997), pp. 243–246.
- ^ Sullivan (1997), p. 13.
- ^ Rader (2008), p. 110; Zimbalist (2006), p. 22. See "National Agreement for the Government of Professional Base Ball Clubs". roadsidephotos.sabr.org. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
- ^ Sullivan (1997), pp. 13–16.
- ^ Sullivan (1997), pp. 141–150; Sullivan (1998), pp. 8–10.
- ^ Koppett (2004), p. 99.
- ^ Burk (2001), pp. 56, 100, 102, 103, 113, 143, 147, 170, et seq.; Powers (2003), pp. 17–21, 27, 83, 121, 122, 160–164, 177; Rader (2008), pp. 60–71.
- ^ Powers (2003), pp. 39, 47, 48.
- ^ Burgos (2007), pp. 117, 118.
- ^ Belth, Alex (November 26, 2001). "Ending Baseball's Antitrust Exemption: What Would It Mean?". Baseball Prospectus. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
Baseball is the only major sport that has an exemption from antitrust law.
- ^ Calcaterra, Craig (May 29, 2019). "Happy birthday to baseball's antitrust exemption". NBC Sports. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
What is still in place, firmly, is Major League Baseball's ability to work to thwart competitors, if any ever arise, and its ability to carve out protected geographic territories for its clubs and anti-competitive contract rights for its clubs.
- ^ "Policy Debate: Should the antitrust exemption for baseball be eliminated?". www.swlearning.com. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
- ^ Sullivan (1997), p. 214.
- ^ Zoss (2004), p. 90.
- ^ Zoss (2004), p. 192.
- ^ Burk (2001), pp. 34–37.
- ^ "History of Little League". Little League. Archived from the original on 2007-05-14. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
- ^ Lesko, Jeneane (2005). "League History". All-American Girls Professional Baseball League Players Association. Archived from the original on July 24, 2011. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
- ^ Burgos (2007), p. 158.
- ^ Burgos (2007), pp. 180, 191.
- ^ a b c Powers (2003), p. 111.
- ^ "Baseball: White Sox and Fans Speak Same Language, with a Spanish Accent". The New York Times. October 26, 2005. Retrieved 2009-02-04.
- ^ Rader (2008), p. 3; Bjarkman (2005), p. xxxvii.
- ^ a b Simmons, Rob, "The Demand for Spectator Sports", in Handbook on the Economics of Sport, ed. Wladimir Andreff and Stefan Szymanski (Edward Elgar, 2006), pp. 77–89.
- ^ Powers (2003), p. 170.
- ^ Burgos (2007), p. 215.
- ^ Heaphy (2003), pp. 121, 218–224.
- ^ Koppett (2004), pp. 307, 308; Sullivan (2002), pp. 163, 164.
- ^ Blair (2012), pp. 59–61.
- ^ Powers (2003), pp. 170, 172–175.
- ^ Powers (2003), pp. 156–168, 175, 176.
- ^ Sullivan (2002), p. 239.
- ^ Powers (2003), pp. 178, 180, 245.
- ^ Powers (2003), pp. 184–187, 191, 192, 280–282.
- ^ Koppett (2004), pp. 376, 511.
- ^ Rader (2008), pp. 249, 250.
- ^ Koppett (2004), p. 481.
- ^ Koppett (2004), p. 489.
- ^ Rader (2008), pp. 254, 271; Zimbalist (2007), pp. 195, 196; Verducci, Tom (May 29, 2012). "To Cheat or Not to Cheat". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 2012-05-30.
- ^ "MLB Regular-Season Attendance Just Shy of Last Year's Record". Street & Smith's SportsBusiness Daily. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
- ^ "Minor League Baseball History". Minor League Baseball. Archived from the original on January 20, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
- ^ Powers (2003), pp. 292–293; Rader (2008), pp. 254, 271, 275–277.
- ^ Hilgers, Laura (July 5, 2006). "Youth Sports Drawing More than Ever". CNN. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
- ^ Drellich, Evan (October 6, 2010). "Year of the Pitcher Extends to Postseason". Major League Baseball. Archived from the original on 31 October 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-10. Gregory, Sean (November 2, 2010). "Giants Win World Series: Year of the Pitcher Ends with a Fitting Duel". Time. Archived from the original on 7 November 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-10.
- ^ Speier, Alex (October 8, 2010). "Year of the Pitcher, or Year of the Umpire?". WEEI. Archived from the original on October 17, 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-10.
- ^ Sheehan, Joe (March 2, 2012). "Additional Wild Cards Won't Solve Problems; They'll Compound Them". SI.com. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
- ^ "Baseball Officially Expands Playoff Format". The New York Times. Associated Press. March 2, 2012. Retrieved 2015-01-01.
- ^ "New MLB postseason format, explained". MLB.com. Retrieved 2023-03-09.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-03-09.
- ^ Shapiro, Michael (February 10, 2022). "Rob Manfred Announces MLB Will Implement Universal DH in 2022". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved February 10, 2022.
- ^ Bjarkman (2004), p. 73; Burk (2001), p. 58.
- ^ "Canada: Baseball participation, popularity rising across the nation". World Baseball Softball Confederation. October 12, 2016. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
- ISBN 978-0773511200.
- ISBN 978-1317459477.
- ^ Terry (1909), p. 506.
- ^ Bjarkman (2004), pp. xxiv.
- ^ Bjarkman (2004), pp. xxiv, 11, 123, 137, 233, 356; Gmelch (2006), p. 296.
- ^ McNeil (2000), p. 113.
- ^ Whiting, Robert (April 11, 2007). "Is the MLB Destroying Japan's National Pastime?". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2009-02-08.
- ^ Bjarkman (2004), pp. xxiv, xxv; Burgos (2007), p. 46.
- ^ Bjarkman (2004), pp. 362, 368; Gmelch (2006), pp. 100, 75, 59.
- ^ Bjarkman (2004), p. xv.
- ^ Mayo, Jonathan (January 28, 2009). "Perspective: Baseball in the Holy Land". Minor League Baseball. Archived from the original on January 31, 2009. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
- ^ "International Baseball Federation (Confederations/Member Federations)". International Baseball Federation. Archived from the original on March 6, 2009. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
- ISBN 978-0786455881.
- ^ "A Highlighted History of Women in Baseball". USA Baseball. Retrieved 2018-04-27.
- ^ Berman, Dave (February 21, 2018). "World's women's baseball elite coming to Viera for 12-team World Cup in August". Florida Today. Retrieved 2018-04-27.
- ^ "Fewer Sports for London Olympics". BBC News. July 8, 2005. Retrieved 2008-09-16.
- ^ McCauley, Janie (August 23, 2008). "MLB Wants Baseball Back in Olympics". The Washington Times. Associated Press. Archived from the original on August 12, 2011. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
- ^ Wilson, Stephen (August 13, 2009). "Softball Again Misses the Cut for Olympic Games". Associated Press (USA Today). Retrieved 2009-08-13.
- ^ Isidore, Chris (March 11, 2006). "The Spring Classic?". CNNMoney.com. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
- Sporting News. CBS Interactive. Archived from the originalon July 1, 2015. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
- ^ "IBAF Congress Approves New Format of International Tournaments" (Press release). International Baseball Federation. December 3, 2011. Retrieved January 20, 2013.
Sources
- Bjarkman, Peter C. (2004). Diamonds Around the Globe: The Encyclopedia of International Baseball. Greenwood. OCLC 58806121.
- Blair, Roger D. (2012). Sports Economics. OCLC 898662502.
- Block, David (2005). Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game. OCLC 70261798.
- Burgos, Adrian (2007). Playing America's Game: Baseball, Latinos, and the Color Line. OCLC 81150202.
- Burk, Robert F. (2001). Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920. OCLC 28183874.
- Gmelch, George (2006). Baseball Without Borders: The International Pastime. University of Nebraska Press. OCLC 64594333.
- Heaphy, Leslie A. (2003). The Negro Leagues, 1869–1960. McFarland. OCLC 50285143.
- Koppett, Leonard (2004). Koppett's Concise History of Major League Baseball. OCLC 54674804.
- McNeil, William (2000). Baseball's Other All-Stars: The Greatest Players from the Negro Leagues, the Japanese Leagues, the Mexican League, and the Pre-1960 Winter Leagues in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic. McFarland. OCLC 42976826.
- Powers, Albert Theodore (2003). The Business of Baseball. McFarland. OCLC 50866929.
- Rader, Benjamin G. (2008). Baseball: A History of America's Game (3rd ed.). OCLC 176980876.
- Riess, Steven A. (1991). City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports. University of Illinois Press. OCLC 23739530.
- Ryczek, William J. (2009). Baseball's First Inning: A History of the National Pastime Through the Civil War. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-4194-5.
- Seymour, Harold (1989). Baseball: The Early Years. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503890-3.
- Sullivan, Dean, ed. (1997). Early Innings: A Documentary History of Baseball, 1825–1908. University of Nebraska Press. OCLC 36258074.
- Sullivan, Dean, ed. (1998). Middle Innings: A Documentary History of Baseball, 1900–1948. University of Nebraska Press. OCLC 37533976.
- Sullivan, Dean, ed. (2002). Late Innings: A Documentary History of Baseball, 1945–1972. University of Nebraska Press. OCLC 47643746.
- Terry, Thomas Philip (1911). Terry's Mexico: Handbook for Travellers (2nd rev. ed.). Gay and Hancock, Houghton Mifflin, and Sonora News. OCLC 7587420.
- Tygiel, Jules (2000). Past Time: Baseball as History. Oxford University Press. OCLC 42290019.
- Zimbalist, Andrew (2007). In the Best Interests of Baseball?: The Revolutionary Reign of Bud Selig. John Wiley & Sons. OCLC 62796332.
- Zoss, Joel (2004). Diamonds in the Rough: The Untold History of Baseball. University of Nebraska Press. OCLC 54611393.