History of the Tesla coil
Nikola Tesla patented the Tesla coil circuit on April 25, 1891.[4][5] and first publicly demonstrated it May 20, 1891 in his lecture "Experiments with Alternate Currents of Very High Frequency and Their Application to Methods of Artificial Illumination" before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers at Columbia College, New York.[6][7][8] Although Tesla patented many similar circuits during this period, this was the first that contained all the elements of the Tesla coil: high voltage primary transformer, capacitor, spark gap, and air core "oscillation transformer".
Invention
. During the
Tesla's background was in the new field of alternating current power systems, so he understood transformers and resonance.[11][8] In 1888 he decided that high frequencies were the most promising field for research, and set up a laboratory at 33 South Fifth Avenue, New York for researching them, initially repeating Hertz's experiments.
He first developed alternators as sources of high frequency current, but by 1890 found they were limited to frequencies of about 20 kHz.[8] In search of higher frequencies he turned to spark-excited resonant circuits.[11] Tesla's innovation was in applying resonance to transformers.[13] Transformers functioned differently at high frequencies than at the low frequencies used in power systems; the iron core in low frequency transformers caused energy losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis.[11] Tesla[3]
Tesla invented the Tesla coil during efforts to develop a "wireless" lighting system, with
-
One of Tesla's early coils at his New York lab in 1892, with a conical secondary.
Tesla was not the first to invent this circuit.[21][15] Henry Rowland built a spark-excited resonant transformer circuit (above) in 1889[2] and Elihu Thomson had experimented with similar circuits in 1890, including one which could produce 64 inch (1.6 m) sparks,[9][22][23] [1] and other sources confirm Tesla was not the first.[14][24][15] However he was the first to see practical applications for it and patent it. Tesla did not perform detailed mathematical analyses of the circuit, relying instead on trial and error and his intuitive understanding of resonance.[8] He even realized that the secondary coil functioned as a quarter-wave resonator; he specified the length of the wire in the secondary coil must be a quarter wavelength at the resonant frequency.[25][8] The first mathematical analyses of the circuit were done by Anton Oberbeck (1895)[26][15] and Paul Drude (1904).[27][4]
Tesla's demonstrations
A charismatic showman and self-promoter, in 1891-1893 Tesla used the Tesla coil in dramatic public lectures demonstrating the new science of high voltage, high frequency electricity.
Wireless power experiments
Tesla employed the Tesla coil in his efforts to achieve
It is now understood that
Magnifying transmitter
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Tesla_magnifying_transmitter_circuit.svg/260px-Tesla_magnifying_transmitter_circuit.svg.png)
Tesla's wireless research required increasingly high voltages, and he had reached the limit of the voltages he could generate within the space of his New York lab. Between 1899 and 1900 he built a laboratory in
In the magnifying transmitter, Tesla used a modified design (see circuit) which he had developed in his New York lab in the period 1895–1898,
The Colorado Springs apparatus consisted of a 51-foot-diameter (15.5 m) Tesla transformer composed of a secondary winding (L2) of 50 turns of heavy wire wound on a 6-foot-high (2 m) circular wooden "fence" around the periphery of the lab, and a single-turn primary (L1) either mounted on the fence or buried in the ground under it.
Wardenclyffe tower
In 1901, convinced his wireless theories were correct, Tesla with financing from banker
By 1904 his investors had pulled out[54] and the facility was never completed; it was torn down in 1916.[49][64] Although Tesla seems to have believed his wireless power ideas were proven,[56] he had a history of making claims that he had not confirmed by experiment,[74][75][76] and there seems to be no evidence that he ever transmitted significant power beyond the short-range demonstrations mentioned above.[34][55][38][56][11][58][59][57] The few reports of long-distance power transmission by Tesla are not from reliable sources. For example, a widely repeated myth is that in 1899 he wirelessly lit 200 light bulbs at a distance of 26 miles (42 km).[55][56] There is no independent confirmation of this supposed demonstration;[55][56] Tesla did not mention it,[56] and it does not appear in his laboratory notes.[51][77] It originated in 1944 from Tesla's first biographer, John J. O'Neill,[41] who said he pieced it together from "fragmentary material... in a number of publications".[78]
In the 100 years since, others such as Robert Golka[70][79][80] have built equipment similar to Tesla's, but long-distance power transmission has not been demonstrated,[81][39][41][56] and the scientific consensus is his World Wireless system would not have worked.[82][37][38][49][56][75][57] Contemporary scientists point out that while Tesla's coils (with appropriate antennas) can function as radio transmitters, transmitting energy in the form of radio waves, the frequency he used, around 150 kHz, is far too low for practical long-range power transmission.[38][56][58] At these wavelengths the radio waves spread out in all directions and cannot be focused on a distant receiver.[37][38][56][75] Tesla's world power transmission scheme remains today what it was in Tesla's time: a bold, fascinating dream.[49]
Use in radio
- "[The Tesla coil] was invented not for wireless but for making vacuum lamps glow without external electrodes, and it later played a principal part in other hands in the operation of big spark stations." --William H. Eccles, 1933[85]
One of the largest applications of the Tesla coil circuit was in early
In 1892 William Crookes, a friend of Tesla, had given a lecture[88] on the uses of radio waves in which he suggested using resonance to reduce the bandwidth in transmitters and receivers. By using resonant circuits, different transmitters could be "tuned" to transmit on different frequencies. With narrower bandwidth, separate transmitter frequencies would no longer overlap, so a receiver could receive a particular transmission by "tuning" its resonant circuit to the same frequency as the transmitter.[86][12][84] This is the system used in all modern radio.
With an appropriate wire antenna, the Tesla coil circuit could function as such a narrow-bandwidth radio transmitter.
Practical
Although their damping had been reduced as much as possible, spark transmitters still produced
During the "spark era" the radio engineering profession gave credit to Tesla;[86] his circuit became known as the "Tesla coil" or "Tesla transformer".[12][14][102] However Tesla did not benefit financially, due to competing patent claims. Marconi had claimed rights to the "closed primary open secondary" transmitter circuit in his controversial 1900 "four circuit" wireless patent.[83][95][92][36][84] Tesla sued Marconi in 1915 for patent infringement, but didn't have the resources to pursue the action.[86][92][91][36] However, in 1943, in a separate suit brought by the Marconi Company against the US government for use of its patents in World War I, the US Supreme Court invalidated Marconi's 1900 patent claim to the "four circuit" concept.[103][12][36][84][104] The ruling cited the prior patents of Tesla, Lodge, and Stone,[86][12] but did not decide which of these parties had rights to the circuit.[36][92][84] By that time the issue was moot; the patent had expired in 1915 and spark transmitters had long been obsolete.
Although there is some disagreement over the role Tesla himself played in the invention of radio,[105][12][36][104] sources agree on the importance of his circuit in early radio transmitters.[84][106][65][90][92][86][101] From a modern perspective, most spark transmitters could be regarded as Tesla coils.[65][89]
Use in medicine
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Tesla_D%27Arsonval_and_Oudin_electrotherapy_circuits.png/400px-Tesla_D%27Arsonval_and_Oudin_electrotherapy_circuits.png)
Tesla had observed as early as 1891 that high frequency currents above 100 kHz did not cause the sensation of
A few other researchers were also experimentally applying high frequency currents to the body at this time.
During this period, people were fascinated by the new technology of electricity, and many believed it had miraculous curative or "vitalizing" powers.
The popularity of electrotherapy peaked after World War I,[111][123] but by the 1920s authorities began to crack down on fraudulent medical treatments, and electrotherapy largely became obsolete. A part of the field that survived was diathermy, the application of high frequency current to heat body tissue, pioneered by German physician Karl Nagelschmidt in 1907.[111][118] During the 1920s "long wave" (0.5~2 MHz) Tesla coil spark diathermy machines were used, in which the current was applied to the body by electrodes. By the 1930s these were being replaced by "short wave" (10~100 MHz) vacuum tube diathermy machines,[111][118] which had less danger of causing burns, but Tesla coils continued to be used in both diathermy[111] and quack medical devices like violet ray[125] until World War II. In 1926 William T. Bovie discovered that RF currents applied to a scalpel could cut and cauterize tissue in medical operations, and spark oscillators were used as electrosurgery generators or "Bovies" as late as the 1980s.[127]
During the 1920s and 30s all unipolar (single terminal) high voltage medical coils came to be called Oudin coils, so today's unipolar Tesla coils are sometimes referred to as "Oudin coils".[128]
Use in show business
The Tesla coil's spectacular displays of sparks, and the fact that its currents could pass through the human body without causing
In the early 20th century it appeared in traveling carnivals, freak shows and circus and carnival sideshows, which often had an act in which a performer would pass high voltages through his body[32][131][129]
Tesla coils were also used as dramatic
The Tesla coils for many of these movies were constructed by
Use in education
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Small_Tesla_coil_kit_1918.jpg/220px-Small_Tesla_coil_kit_1918.jpg)
Ever since Tesla's 1890s lectures, Tesla coils have been used as attractions in educational exhibits and
From 1933 into the 1980s, between movie jobs Hollywood special effects expert Ken Strickfaden would take his high voltage apparatus on the road in an exhibition called "Science on Parade" and later "The Kenstric Space Age Science Show" to high schools, colleges, World Fairs and expositions.[143] These spectacular shows, which reached 48 states, had a seminal influence on the birth of the modern "coiling" movement.[140] A number of present-day Tesla hobbyists such as William Wysock say they were inspired to build Tesla coils by seeing Strickfaden's show.[143]
One of the oldest and best-known coils still in operation is the "GPO-1" at
Later uses
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Tuve_%26_Breit_Tesla_coil_particle_accelerator_1928.jpg/220px-Tuve_%26_Breit_Tesla_coil_particle_accelerator_1928.jpg)
In addition to its use in
In 1926, pioneering accelerator physicists
In 1970 Robert K. Golka built a replica of Tesla's huge Colorado Springs magnifying transmitter in a shed at Wendover Air Force Base, Utah, using data he found in Tesla's lab notes archived at the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Serbia.[70][79] [80][148] This was one of the first experiments with the magnifier circuit since Tesla's time. The coil generated 12 million volts. Golka used it to try to duplicate Tesla's reported synthesis of ball lightning.
References
- ^ a b Thomson, Elihu (November 3, 1899). "Apparatus for obtaining high frequencies and pressures". The Electrician. 44 (2): 40–41. Retrieved May 1, 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f g Strong, Frederick Finch (1908). High Frequency Currents. New York: Rebman Co. pp. 41–42.
tesla Oudin d'arsonval elihu thomson Rowland.
- ^ a b Tesla, Nikola (March 29, 1899). "Some experiments in Tesla's laboratory with currents of high frequencies and pressures". Electrical Review. 34 (13): 193–197. Retrieved November 30, 2015. p. 196-197 and fig. 2: Tesla describes the steps in his invention of the high frequency transformer.
- ^ a b Denicolai, 2001, Tesla Transformer for Experimentation and Research, Ch.1, p. 1-6
- ^ a b U.S. Patent No. 454,622, Nikola Tesla, SYSTEM OF ELECTRIC LIGHTING, filed 25 April 1891; granted 23 June 1891
- ^ a b c The lecture "Experiments with Alternate Currents of Very High Frequency and Their Application to Methods of Artificial Illumination" is reprinted in Martin, Thomas Cummerford (1894). The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla: With Special Reference to His Work in Polyphase Currents and High Potential Lighting, 2nd Ed. The Electrical Engineer. pp. 145–197. The Tesla coil circuit is shown p. 193, fig. 127
- ISBN 978-1934451892. The Tesla coil illustration is shown p. 103, fig. 32
- ^ 2016-05-17 at the Portuguese Web Archive
- ^ a b Thomson, Elihu (February 20, 1892). "Induction by high potential discharges". Electrical World. 19 (8): 116–117. Retrieved November 21, 2015.
- ISBN 978-1400857883.
- ^ ISBN 978-1400846559.
- ^ ISBN 978-0760710050.
- ^ S2CID 51671246.
- ^ a b c d e Pierce, George Washington (1910). Principles of Wireless Telegraphy. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. pp. 93–95.
tesla elihu thomson.
- ^ a b c d e Fleming, John Ambrose (1910). The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy and Telephony, 2nd Ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 581–582.
- ^ W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, Princeton University Press - 2013, page 122
- ^ W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, Princeton University Press - 2013, page 124
- ^ a b "Tesla's system of electric power transmission through natural media". The Electrical Review. 43 (1094): 709. November 11, 1898. Retrieved August 7, 2015.
- ^ Tesla stated in Nikola Tesla My Inventions - Ch. 5: The Magnifying Transmitter, Electrical Experimenter, Vol. 7, No. 2, June 1919, p. 112, that this picture showed a prototype of his magnifying transmitter, a smaller version of the apparatus installed in his Colorado Springs lab.
- ^ Tesla, Nikola (July 1919). "Electrical Oscillators" (PDF). Electrical Experimenter. 7 (3): 228–229, 259–260. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
- ^ "Transformer". Encyclopaedia Britannica, 10th Ed. Vol. 33. The Encyclopaedia Britannica Co. 1903. p. 426. Retrieved May 1, 2015.
- ^ Thomson, Elihu (April 1893). "High Frequency Electric Induction". Technology Quarterly and Proceedings of Society of Arts. 6 (1): 50–59. Retrieved November 22, 2015.
- ^ Thomson, Elihu (July 23, 1906). "Letter to Frederick Finch Strong". The Electrotherapy Museum website. Jeff Behary, Bellingham, Washington, USA. Reproduced by permission of The American Philosophical Society. Retrieved August 20, 2015. In this letter Thomson lists papers he published in technical journals which support his claim to priority in inventing the "Tesla coil" resonant transformer circuit
- ^ Fessenden, Reginald A. (August 1908). "Wireless Telephony". Telephony. 16 (2): 75. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
- ^ "The length of the...coil in each transformer should be approximately one quarter of the wave length of the electric disturbance in the circuit, this estimate being based on the velocity of propagation of the disturbaiice through the coil itself..." US Patent No. 645576, Nikola Tesla, System of transmission of electrical energy, filed September 2, 1897; granted March 20, 1900
- .
- ISSN 1521-3889., English translation
- ^ ISBN 978-1400846559.
- ^ A description of a similar demonstration which Tesla organized at the Westinghouse exhibit at the 1893 Columbian Exposition in St. Louis is found in Barrett, John Patrick (1894). Electricity at the Columbian Exposition; Including an Account of the Exhibits in the Electricity Building, the Power Plant in Machinery Hall. R. R. Donnelley. pp. 168–169. Retrieved 29 November 2010.
- ^ Thomas Cummerford Martin 1894 The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla, 2nd Ed., p. 198-293
- ^ a b "On light and other high frequency phenomena", Thomas Cummerford Martin 1894 The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla, 2nd Ed., p. 294-373
- ^ ISBN 978-0786420643.
- ^ ISBN 978-1136993756.
- ^ ISBN 9788681243442. This represents a transmission efficiency of only 0.0033%.
- ^ a b c d US Patent No. 645576, Nikola Tesla, System of transmission of electrical energy, filed September 2, 1897; granted March 20, 1900
- ^ ISBN 978-0521835398.
- ^ ISBN 978-0387447100.
- ^ ISBN 978-1118862964.
- ^ a b c d e f g Lee, C.K.; Zhong, W.X.; Hui, S.Y.R. (September 5, 2012). Recent Progress in Mid-Range Wireless Power Transfer (PDF). The 4th Annual IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE 2012). Raleigh, North Carolina: Inst. of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. pp. 3819–3821. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
- ^ ISBN 978-0809501625.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4516-7486-6.
- ^ Tesla was notoriously secretive about the distance he could transmit power. One of his few disclosures of details was in the caption of fig. 7 of his noted magazine article: The Problem of Increasing Human Energy, Century magazine, June 1900. The caption reads: "EXPERIMENT TO ILLUSTRATE AN INDUCTIVE EFFECT OF AN ELECTRICAL OSCILLATOR OF GREAT POWER - The photograph shows three ordinary incandescent lamps lighted to full candle-power by currents induced in a local loop consisting of a single wire forming a square of fifty feet each side, which includes the lamps, and which is at a distance of one hundred feet from the primary circuit energized by the oscillator. The loop likewise includes an electrical condenser, and is exactly attuned to the vibrations of the oscillator, which is worked at less than five percent of its total capacity."
- ISBN 978-1-4244-4283-6. Archived from the original(PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved November 20, 2014.
- ISBN 978-0124186668.
- doi:10.2528/PIERB12120512. Archived from the original(PDF) on August 3, 2016. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
- ISBN 978-0470975664.
- ^ Tesla, Nikola (June 1900). "The Problem of Increasing Human Energy". Century Magazine. Retrieved November 20, 2014.
- ^ a b c Tesla, Nikola (March 5, 1904). "The Transmission of Electric Energy Without Wires". Electrical World and Engineer. 43: 23760–23761. Retrieved November 19, 2014., reprinted in Scientific American Supplement, Munn and Co., Vol. 57, No. 1483, June 4, 1904, p. 23760-23761
- ^ a b c d Broad, William J. (May 4, 2009). "A Battle to Preserve a Visionary's Bold Failure". New York Times. New York. pp. D1. Retrieved November 19, 2014.
- ^ Carlson 2013 Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, p. 209-210
- ^ a b c Cheney, Margaret (2011) Tesla: Man Out of Time, p. 187–189
- ^ a b Sewall, Charles Henry (1903). Wireless telegraphy: its origins, development, inventions, and apparatus. D. Van Nostrand Co. pp. 38–42.
Tesla.
- ISBN 978-1627932561.
- ^ a b c Carlson 2013 Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, p. 337-346
- ^ ISBN 978-0760710050.
- ^ ISBN 978-0786426621.
- ^ ISBN 978-1631060304.
- ^ . Retrieved November 20, 2014.
- ^ a b "Life and Legacy: Colorado Springs". Tesla: Master of Lightning - companion site for 2000 PBS television documentary. PBS.org, Public Broadcasting Service website. 2000. Retrieved November 19, 2014.
- ^ a b c Carlson 2013 Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, p. 297–299
- ^ Denicolai, 2001, Tesla Transformer for Experimentation and Research, Ch.2, p. 8-10
- ^ a b c d e Sarkar et al. (2006) History of Wireless, p. 279-280, archive Archived 2016-05-17 at the Portuguese Web Archive
- ISBN 1-893817-01-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-1934451779.
- ^ ISBN 978-0299215804.
- ISBN 0-910077-00-2
- ^ a b US Patent No. 1119732, Nikola Tesla Apparatus for transmitting electrical energy, filed January 18, 1902; granted December 1, 1914
- ^ Gerekos, 2012, The Tesla Coil, p. 19-20 Archived June 23, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Martin, James M. (1912). Practical electro-therapeutics and X-ray therapy. C.V. Mosby Co. pp. 187–192.
Tesla D'Arsonval Oudin.
- ^ a b c Shunamen, Fred (June 1976). "12 Million Volts" (PDF). Radio-Electronics. 47 (6): 32–34, 69. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
- ^ Carlson 2013 Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, p. 267–268
- 2016-05-17 at the Portuguese Web Archive
- ^ Carlson 2013 Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, p. 318-327
- ^ Hawkins, Lawrence A. (February 1903). "Nikola Tesla: His Work and Unfulfilled Promises". The Electrical Age. 30 (2): 107–108. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
- ^ a b c "Dennis Papadopoulos interview". Tesla: Master of Lightning - companion site for 2000 PBS television documentary. PBS.org, Public Broadcasting Service website. 2000. Retrieved November 19, 2014.
- ISBN 978-1400846559.
- ^ Tesla, Nikola (1977). Marinčić, Aleksandar (ed.). Colorado Springs Notes, 1899-1900. Belgrade, Yugoslavia: The Nikola Tesla Museum.
- ^ O'Neill, John J. (1944). Prodigal Genius: The life of Nikola Tesla. Ives Washburn, Inc. p. 193.
- ^ a b Golka, Robert K. (February 1981). "Project Tesla - In Search of an Answer to Our Energy Needs". Radio-Electronics. 52 (2): 47–49. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
- ^ a b Lawren, Bill (March 1988). "Rediscovering Tesla". Omni Magazine. 10 (6): 64–66, 68, 116–117. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
- ISBN 978-1-4244-4283-6. Archived from the original(PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved November 20, 2014.
- ISBN 978-9876510097.
- ^ a b c US Patent no. 763,772, Guglielmo Marconi, Apparatus for wireless telegraphy, filed: November 10, 1900, granted: June 28, 1904. Corresponding British patent no. 7777, Guglielmo Marconi, Improvements in apparatus for wireless telegraphy, filed: April 26, 1900, granted: April 13, 1901
- ^ ISBN 978-0471697398.
- ^ Eccles, William H. (1933). Wireless. T. Butterworth, Ltd. p. 80. quoted in Sarkar, Mailloux, Oliner (2006) History of Wireless, p. 268. Eccles was a contemporary of Tesla.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Sarkar et al (2006) History of Wireless, p. 352-353, 355-357, archive Archived 2016-05-17 at the Portuguese Web Archive
- ^ a b Aitken, Hugh 2014 Syntony and Spark: The origins of radio, p. 70–73
- ^ Crookes, William (February 1, 1892). "Some Possibilities of Electricity". The Fortnightly Review. 51: 174–176. Archived from the original on September 29, 2018. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-07-149737-4.
- ^ a b Uth, Robert (December 12, 2000). "Tesla coil". Tesla: Master of Lightning. PBS.org. Retrieved 2008-05-20.
- ^ a b c d Aitken, Hugh 2014 Syntony and Spark: The origins of radio, p. 254-255, 259
- ^ ISBN 978-0313347436.
- ^ a b c Cheney, Margaret (2011) Tesla: Man Out Of Time, p. 96–97
- ^ ISBN 978-0313331671.
- ^ a b The "four circuit" radio system, which Marconi claimed in his 1900 patent, meant a transmitter and receiver which each contained a resonant transformer and thus were divided into primary and secondary circuits. All four circuits were tuned to the same frequency, one side by capacitors, and the other side by the capacitance of the antenna; "the use of two high frequency circuits in the transmitter and two in the receiver, all four so adjusted to be resonant at the same frequency or multiples of it.""No. 369 (1943) Marconi Wireless Co. of America v. United States". United States Supreme Court decision. Findlaw.com website. June 21, 1943. Retrieved March 14, 2017. This was identical to the system Tesla demonstrated in 1893. The advantage of this system was that due to the resonant transformers both the receiver and transmitter had much narrower bandwidth than previous circuits.
- ISBN 978-0-615-24869-1.
- ^ Tesla, Nikola (May 1919). "The True Wireless" (PDF). Electrical Experimenter. 7 (1): 28–30, 61. Retrieved February 20, 2017. archived on tfcbooks
- ^ Marconi describes his discovery of this principle, and admits his circuit used the "Tesla coil", in Marconi, Guglielmo (May 24, 1901). "Syntonic Wireless Telegraphy". The Electrician. Retrieved April 8, 2017.
- ^ US Patent no. 714,756, John Stone Stone Method of electric signaling, filed: February 8, 1900, granted: December 2, 1902
- ^ US Patent no. 609,154 Oliver Joseph Lodge, Electric Telegraphy, filed: February 1, 1898, granted: August 16, 1898
- ^ ISBN 978-9876510097.
- ^ Mazzotto, Domenico (1906). Wireless telegraphy and telephony. Whittaker and Co. p. 146.
- ^ "No. 369 (1943) Marconi Wireless Co. of America v. United States". United States Supreme Court decision. Findlaw.com website. June 21, 1943. Retrieved March 14, 2017.
- ^ 2016-05-17 at the Portuguese Web Archive
- ^ White, Thomas H. (November 1, 2012). "Nikola Tesla: The Guy Who DIDN'T "Invent Radio"". United States Early Radio History. T. H. White's personal website. Retrieved November 7, 2016.
- ^ Gerekos, 2012, The Tesla Coil, p. 1
- ^ Manders, Horace (August 1, 1902). "Some phenomena of high frequency currents". Journal of Physical Therapeutics. 3 (1): 220–221. Retrieved December 2, 2014.
- ^ a b Tesla, Nikola (November 17, 1898). "High frequency oscillators for electro-therapeutic and other purposes". The Electrical Engineer. 26 (550): 477–481. Retrieved June 10, 2015. Also read at the 8th annual meeting of The American Electro-Therapeutic Association, Buffalo, New York, Sept. 13-15, 1898
- ^ .
- ^ a b Carlson 2013 Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, p. 217
- ^ a b c d e f Kovács, Richard (1945). Electrotherapy and Light Therapy, 5th Ed. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. pp. 187–188, 197–200.
- ^ a b Cheney (2011) Tesla:Man Out of Time, p. 103
- ^ Gilliams, E. Leslie (December 1912). "Tesla's Plan Of Electrically Treating School Children". Popular Electricity: 813–814. Retrieved April 30, 2016.
- ^ Tesla, N. "High frequency currents for medical purposes" in Electrical Engineer, 1891, cited in Saberton, Claude (1920) Diathermy in Medical and Surgical Practice, published by Paul B. Hoeber, New York, p. 131
- ^ Morton, W. J. (January 17, 1893). "A brief glance at electricity in medicine". Transactions of the American Inst. Of Electrical Engineers: 576–578. Retrieved September 21, 2015.
- PMID 19985436. Retrieved September 22, 2015.
- ^ Williams, Chisolm (1903). High Frequency Currents in the Treatment of Some Diseases. London: Rebman, Ltd. pp. 8–9.
tesla d'arsonval Oudin.
- ^ ISBN 978-9810216658.
- ^ D'Arsonval, A. (August 1893). "Physiological action of currents of great frequency". Modern Medicine and Bacteriological World. 2 (8): 200–203. Retrieved November 22, 2015., translated by J. H. Kellogg
- ^ Martin, James M. (1912). Practical electro-therapeutics and X-ray therapy. C.V. Mosby Co. p. 189.
Oudin coil.
, p.189 fig. 98 - ISBN 978-0752463810.
- ^ Strong, Frederick Finch (1908) High-Frequency Currents, p. 220-223
- ^ ISBN 978-0814719831.
- ^ Morton, William J. (December 27, 1902). "Recent advances in electrotherapeutics". The Medical News. 81 (26): 1201–1202. Retrieved September 5, 2015.
- ^ a b Behary, Jeff (1997). "Violet Ray Misconceptions". The Electrotherapy Museum. Jeff Behary's website. Archived from the original on July 10, 2011. Retrieved October 13, 2015.
- ^ The small high voltage coils in these home violet ray wands resembled induction coils more than Tesla coils; they had iron core transformers and mechanical interrupters and produced lower voltages, 30 - 80 kV, than Tesla coils
- ^ Carr, Joseph J. (May 1990). "Early radio transmitters" (PDF). Popular Electronics. 7 (5): 43–46. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
- ^ Behary, Jeff (1 July 2007). "RE: Oudin coil". Tesla Coil Mailing List (Mailing list). Retrieved 16 November 2015.
- ^ a b c d e Electrice (1914). "Doing and Daring for the Public's Pleasure". Popular Electricity. 6 (9): 1044–1046. Retrieved October 3, 2015.
- ^ a b c d Many of these stunts are demonstrated and explained in Transtrom, Henry L. (1913). Electricity at high pressures and frequencies. Joseph G. Branch Publishing Co. pp. 189–207.
- ^ Madamoiselle Electra (October 1911). "How I Give the Public Electric Thrills". Popular Electricity. 4 (6): 507–510. Retrieved September 25, 2015.
- ^ ISBN 978-0806535982.
- ^ ISBN 978-0813137377.
- ^ H.F.S. (May 1911). "Electricity in Vaudville". Popular Electricity and the World's Advance. 4 (1): 170–171. Retrieved 28 September 2017.
- ISBN 978-0062242174.. Bradbury has said that this was based on a real performer, Mr. Electrico, part of a seedy traveling carnival, whom he met as a boy in 1932 in Waukegan, Illinois. Bradbury, Ray (December 2001) In his words blog, Ray Bradbury personal website Archived 2012-06-16 at the Wayback Machine and Weller, Sam (Spring 2010) "Ray Bradbury interview, The Art of Fiction No. 203", The Paris Review, No. 192, published by Antonio Weiss, New York.
- ISBN 978-0545316545.
- ^ Richards, Austin (2015). "Dr. Megavolt". Personal Website. High Voltage Entertainment, Inc. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
- ^ ISBN 978-0393045826.
- ISBN 978-0-8108-8128-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0810876774.)
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- ISBN 978-0520064263.
- ^ Reed, John Randolph (2000). "Designing high-gain triple resonant Tesla transformers" (PDF). Dept. of Engineering and Computer Science, Univ. of Central Florida. Retrieved August 2, 2015.
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