International labour law
International labour law is the body of rules spanning
International labour standards refer to conventions agreed upon by international actors, resulting from a series of value judgments, set forth to protect basic worker rights, enhance workers’ job security, and improve their terms of employment on a global scale. The intent of such standards, then, is to establish a worldwide minimum level of protection from inhumane labour practices through the adoption and implementation of said measures. From a theoretical standpoint, it has been maintained, on ethical grounds, that there are certain basic human rights that are universal to humankind.[1] Thus, it is the aim of international labour standards to ensure the provision of such rights in the workplace, such as against workplace aggression, bullying, discrimination and gender inequality on the other hands for working diversity, workplace democracy and empowerment.
While the existence of international labour standards does not necessarily imply implementation or enforcement mechanisms, most real world cases have utilised formal treaties and agreements stemming from international institutions.
Implementation, however, is not limited to the ILO nor is it constrained to the legislative model that the ILO represents. Other alternatives include direct trade sanctions, multilateral enforcement, and voluntary standards. In addition to controversies that arise over each of these models, greater issues have also been raised concerning the debate over the need for international labour standards themselves. However, while critics have arisen, the international community has largely come to a consensus in favour of basic protection of the world’s labour force from inhumane practices.[3]
Associated with the development of successful international labour standards is proper monitoring and enforcement of labour standards. Most monitoring occurs through the ILO, but domestic agencies and other NGOs also play a role in the successful monitoring of international labour standards.[4]
History
Since the
the extension of the principle of free trade, which induces between nations such a competition that the interest of the workman is liable to be lost sight of and sacrificed in the fierce international race between capitalists, demands that such [unions] should be still further extended and made international.
Early history
The concept of protecting workers from the perils of labour environments dates all the way back to 14th-century Europe.[6] The first example of the modern labor rights movement, though, came in response to the brutal working conditions that accompanied the onset of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries.[6] In 1802, the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed what is now known as the English Factory Act. The act sought to regulate the workday of apprentices by restricting work hours to 12 per day.[6] In doing so, the English Factory Act served as a precursor to the models of international labour standards seen today. Minimal regulations similar to those found in English legislation subsequently became increasingly commonplace among 19th century industrialising nations. Early attempts at the provision of labour standards were limited in scope, though. Such conventions focused primarily on improving working conditions in relation to hours of work, women's and children's labour, and the use of hazardous materials.[1] While it was evident that support for workers’ rights was inconsistent across international boundaries, activists originally only employed the use of moral suasion to deal with differences in labour standards. It was not until the latter parts of the 19th century that efforts were made to implement uniform standards on an international scale.[6]
Creation of ILO
In 1919, following the end of the First World War, the agenda on international labour standards reached a new level of prominence as a result of the founding of the International Labour Organization.[1] As mandated by Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles, the ILO was created as a branch of the League of Nations in order to address all conceivable aspects of labour rights. Preliminary efforts focused primarily on the eradication of slavery and all forms of forced labour.[1] The agenda quickly expanded, however, to include the rights to freedom of association and collective bargaining, non-discrimination in employment, and the elimination of child labour. The ILO’s creation marked the first instance of multiple major international actors coming together in an attempt to reach a consensus on universal workers’ rights. Despite a lack of any formal means of coercion, the ILO then urged its 44 original member countries to adopt and ratify conventions limiting oppressive labour market practices.[1]
The early years of the ILO
In the first two years of the ILO’s existence, 22 international labour conventions were adopted.[7] Some of the topics that the first conventions addressed were “hours of work in industry, unemployment, maternity protection, night work for women, minimum age, and night work for young persons in industry.”[7] In 1930, the ILO adopted the first future fundamental convention: the Forced Labour Convention (No.29), which prohibited all forms of forced labour unless exempted by certain conditions.[8] With the onset of the Great Depression, the United States joined the ILO in 1934 noting that complex labour issues would require an international response.[9] Throughout the history of the League of Nations, the ILO is the only League-affiliated organisation that the United States joined. With the backdrop of World War 2, the ILO broadened its mandate with the Declaration of Philadelphia, signed during the 26th general conference session in 1944. The Declaration of Philadelphia, which is attached to the general constitution of the ILO, foreshadows some of the ILO’s earliest future fundamental conventions including the freedom of expression and association which was adopted in 1948 as Convention 87, Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention.[10][11]
Globalisation and changing divisions of labour
In the first half of the 20th century, global
With the deregulation of major markets and significant increases in the volume of international trade, attempts to make manufacturing sectors more attractive to retailers saw extreme downward pressure placed on the quality of working conditions in lower income regions of the world.[12] This gave rise to growing concerns about a global race to the bottom, in which governments take part in the iterative loosening of labour protections in attempts to aid the international competitiveness of export-oriented industries. Fears of this nature consequently produced the notable increases in the discourse on international labour ethics that characterise the contemporary international human rights arena.[6]
Models
The traditional model of labour standards regulation has been, for most of history, within-country or within-jurisdiction legislation and enforcement.[13] However, this model may not be appropriate when competitors in a product market are located in different countries or jurisdictions with dissimilar labour standards. This concern opens up the discussion for the establishment of international labour standards, which, in turn, require international regulation, particularly in the context of global trade. However, determining an effective method of implementation of international labor standards has been an area of difficulty and an area that is highly contested. The following sections outline several existing models for the regulation of international labour standards based largely on work by Richard N. Block, Karen Roberts, Cynthia Ozeki and Myron J. Roomkin in their paper titled "Models of International Labour Standards".[13]
Legislative
The legislative model for implementing a set of international labour standards is the best known.
Direct trade sanctions
For over 25 years, there have been links between labour standards and
The trade sanctions model in the United States, also working as an incentives approach of sorts, appears to have been successful in forcing U.S. officials to encourage countries that are the subject of complaints to address severe violations of labour standards, as defined in the legislation. This model, however, is not designed to be a broad-based guarantee of labour standards among trading partners because it is based on external complaints not the results of monitoring.
Multilateral enforcement
Another example of the various methods of implementation of international labour standards is the multilateral enforcement model. The model, embodied in the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC), is different from other compulsory methods in that it opposes any imposition of common standards schemes.[13] Instead, the multilateral enforcement model requires that signatories to agreements like the NAALC make firm commitments to existing labor standard structures within their respective domestic spheres. The unique aspect of the NAALC, however, is that it does not in any way dictate policy. This includes a strong aversion to uniformly adopted standards on the international level. Rather than encouraging the inclusion of a baseline set of workers’ rights, the multilateral enforcement model merely requires that its members strive to create unbiased administrative bodies that judge whether or not appropriate measures are being taken to ensure the continued support of domestic labour standards.[13] In this manner, the multilateral model is not international in its adoption of a common set of principles, but rather in its level of required commitment to an unspecified group of standards. In enforcing such commitments, agreements like the NAALC primarily utilize recommendations and publicity to make decision makers accountable for their actions. Multilateral enforcement models like the NAALC have experienced mixed results in terms of effectiveness due to their limited powers of influence.[13]
Voluntary standards
The voluntary standards model makes reference to a system of implementation for labour standards based on a corporate
For this model to be successful, there must be incentive for compliance. The problem, however, is that in the case of labour standards, there are usually high economic incentives to disregard these standards, which are viewed as rises in production costs. For this reason, the monitoring system plays a crucial role in the success and effectiveness of such conditions. In some cases, like the aforementioned
Now, while this is true, it is also true that where costs of complying with stringent standards are high and the sources of consumer pressure diffused, codes are likely to be ineffective. It takes the active involvement and interest of the company, in response to whatever actions have been taken, for this model to be successful. When they choose to respond to outside pressures, companies use means such as public announcements, local religious leaders, human rights activists, university professors, and labor representatives, among others, to implement compliance and a system of monitoring. Another difficulty has been that, while pressure has been effectively pressed on individual firms, it has been difficult to find agreement at an industry level, in terms of corporate codes.
Finally, a variation of the voluntary standards models is one of certification, which began in October 1997 with the issuance of
International Labour Organization
The
The ILO, by its existence, is the recognised international vehicle for raising international labour standards issues in a worldwide forum.[23] No other model in existence is capable of performing this role. This organisation establishes labour standards by means of both conventions and recommendations and has a tripartite governing structure – representing government, employers and workers.[13] While ILO recommendations take more of the role of providing mere guidance to member states, the stronger form, ILO conventions, have the status of a treaty, which, in principle, is binding on the member countries that voluntarily ratify them. These represent benchmarks of strong labour standards towards which countries can strive by promulgating and enforcing national laws that comply with the conventions.[14] It is through these means that the organisation works to enforce international labour standards.
In 1998, the ILO
Alongside the fundamental conventions, the ILO has also identified four priority conventions or governance conventions. Crucial to the running of the international labour standards systems implemented by the ILO, the ILO recommends that member states ratify the following priority conventions: the Labour Inspection Convention (1947), the Labour Inspection (Agriculture) Convention (1969), the Triparte Consultation (International Labour Standards) Convention (1976), and the Employment Policy Convention (1964).[25]
Issues with the ILO’s approach to implementing international labour standards come down to a question of universality amongst the conventions and member countries, with some arguing that flexibility is necessary to meet the needs of developing countries. These concerns gather around the idea that the race to expand exports or attract foreign investment can cause competition on the basis of labour costs, leading to a decline in international labour standards as governments either dismantle national laws that protect workers or weaken the enforcement of these laws.[14] The underlying issue here is the connection between national incomes and the standards a country can feasibly support while remaining competitive. Other issues involve enforcement of these standards following ratification. The ILO provides a vehicle for investigating cases of noncompliance through representations, filed by employer or worker organisations, or complaints, lodged by another member that also ratified the convention.[14] These are then sent to a committee that launches an investigation and report. This is followed by either acceptance of recommendations on steps the government may take to address the complaint or the request to submit the case to the International Court of Justice. Failure to comply may result in an incurred sanction from the organization.
Overall, the ILO structure essentially created a system of voluntary compliance with labor standards based on ratification of the established conventions. In general the enforcement system of representation and complaints has been successful – success being measured by the fact that only one representation or complaint has reached the most severe sanction.[14] On the other hand, due to the absence of strong sanctions, the ILO lacks a strong enough deterrent factor for countries inclined to violate the standards the ILO upholds. Further, the “flexibility” of standards allows too much leeway for adaptation based on independent circumstances, diminishing the force of the conventions.
World Trade Organization
Because the ILOs enforcement and sanction mechanisms are weak, there has been significant discussion about incorporating
Workers in multiple countries
While the debate over labour standards applied by the ILO and the WTO seeks to balance standards with free movement of capital globally,
This fits within the general framework in the EU. Under the EU Rome I Regulation article 8,[33] workers will have employment rights of the country where they habitually work. But exceptionally they may have a claim in another country if they can establish a close connection to it. The Regulation emphasises that the rules should be applied with the purpose of protecting the worker.[34]
It is also necessary that a court has jurisdiction to hear a claim. Under the
European Union law
The
The European Union, unlike most international organisations, has an extensive system of labour laws, but officially excluding (according to the
However, the
For those members within the EC who favour the implementation of labour standards, there has been a push to ease the decision-making barriers to social legislation.[38] On 7 February, 1992, the signing of the Maastricht Treaty made it easier to pass legislation on less controversial issues, such as health and safety, nondiscrimination, and consultation with workers.[39]
While the EC provides a structure for enacting legislation that applies across counties, the extent to which it can actually create international labour standards, even within its own confines, is limited.[13] While these directives allow for labour concerns to be brought above the national level, the presence of philosophical differences among member states as well as constraints on state autonomy demonstrate barriers to this model. However, despite these difficulties and a complex decision-making structure designed to include consultation with the governments of all member states, the various EC policy-making institutions and the related parties have succeeded in creating cross-national legislation for labour standards under its social policy umbrella.[13] Consequently, this model, as demonstrated by the EC, is a viable one for establishing labour standards on a cross-national basis. The difficulty lies in the duplication of this model elsewhere, due to the EC’s unique, integrated community that is the only such general multinational standard system in the world today.[13]
Monitoring
A crucial element to the success of international labour standards is proper monitoring and enforcement. When monitoring international labor standards, agencies rely on three major types of information: information from international organisations, like the ILO, information from national agencies, and information from non-governmental organizations.[40] Upon locating and determining the necessary data, monitoring agencies then need to process and sift through the results to analyze compliance with certain international labor standards. Finally after compliance analysis, recommendations and required adjustments are then communicated to the concerned party.[40]
Data sources
One of the major sources of data necessary for the monitoring of international labour standards is the International Labour Organization. According to Article 22 of the ILO Constitution, “each of the members agrees to make an annual report to the International Labour Office on the measures which it has taken to give effect to the provisions of Conventions to which it is a party.”[41] Specifically, countries are mandated to prepare a report every two years for the Core Labour Standards of the ILO and every five years for all other active conventions that the country has ratified, which are submitted, to the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations and the Conference Committee on the Application of Standards.[42] For conventions that have not yet been ratified by the country, Article 19 of the ILO Constitution mandates countries to demonstrate on regular intervals steps “they have taken to give effect to any provision of certain conventions or recommendations, and to indicate any obstacles which have prevented or delayed the ratification of a particular convention.”[41] All of the above combine to form the ILO’s regular system of supervision.[4][43]
The ILO also has a special procedures type of supervisory mechanism where complaints levelled against member states and freedom of association complaints are dealt with.[4] Under articles 24 and 26 of the ILO Constitution, different groups of people may indicate to the governing body that a certain state is not complying with an international labor standard that they have previously ratified.[40][41] Within the ILO framework, the labor standard regarding the freedom to associate has also received a special priority which allows complaints to be brought up to the governing body even if the state has not ratified the conventions regarding the freedom of association.[4]
Other international organisations like the United Nations and the World Bank also monitor international labour standards.[40] The United Nations largely relies on self-reported data from member states. These data points are used to determine whether or not member states are meeting the requirements of international treaties agreed to by the United Nations. Given that the ILO is a subset of the UN, generally, more detailed labour standards data and compliance records are located within the realm of the ILO.[40] The World Bank incorporates the international standards set by the ILO as one of the factors behind assistance to member states.
National agencies and NGOs also monitor international labour standards. National agencies generally report on domestic compliance of international labour standards while NGOs are much more diverse in their scope.[40]
Challenges
Several challenges, however, exist in the monitoring of international labour standards. The ILO and other international organisations generally rely on self-reporting data from countries.[4][40][42] Some analysts have questioned the quality and neutrality of these sources of data. For example, definitions of what constitutes unemployment vary from country to country making it difficult to compare data and to judge data quality.[40] Additionally, despite the large amount of data, there are still gaps in their coverage. Coverage is greatest in the urban environments and the formal sector. Conversely, gaps exist in the coverage of rural environments and informal sectors which can positively skew the labour statistics that countries report.[40][44]
Challenges also exist in the usage of data to assess compliance with various international labour standards. As interest continues to grow in the monitoring and enforcement of international labour standards, an assessment, according to the National Research Council, “requires careful analysis of what the core labor standards mean and imply, how to determine when a country is or is not in compliance, what indicators of compliance and which sources of information to use, and limitations of the sources of information.”[40] Standardisation will be necessary to allow proper and effective monitoring of labor standards.
Violations
Workplace discrimination
Workplace discrimination, overt and covert, is an example of violations of international labour standards. The ILO defines workplace discrimination as “treating people differently because of certain characteristics, such as race, colour, or sex, which results in the impairment of equality and of opportunity and treatment.”[45] An overt example of workplace discrimination is unequal pay, especially between men and women. Though recognized as an example of workplace discrimination since 1919, the gender pay gap, often a measurement of unequal pay, is estimated to be 22.9%, which means that for every dollar earned by a man, a woman, in the same position would earn 77.1 cents.[46] Despite the fact that the ILO proposes that there are many benefits to reducing and eliminating the gender pay gap, at the current, slow rates of gender pay reduction, the ILO estimates that “another 75 years will be needed to bridge this gap.”[47]
Job security is another arena where workplace discrimination can be found. In some developing countries, like Bangladesh, job insecurity reflects patriarchal societies that have diminished women’s options. Currently in Bangladesh, of the 1.8 million workers in garment factories, 1.5 million are women. From the perspective of the factory owners, the advantage of hiring woman is the “docility that comes with disadvantage.”[12] Women have fewer opportunities than men when it comes to decent, respectable employment. For many of these women, if they were to lose their jobs at the garment factories, they would be forced into poverty or work in the informal sector, like prostitution.[12]
Other forms of discrimination, outside of
Child labour
According to the ILO,
- “Work which exposes children to physical, psychological, or sexual abuse
- Work underground, underwater, at dangerous heights, or in confined spaces
- Work with dangerous machinery, equipment, and tools, or which involves the manual handling or transport of heavy loads
- Work in an unhealthy environment which may, for example, expose children to hazardous substances, agents, or processes, or to temperatures, noise levels, or vibrations, damaging to their health
- Work under particularly difficult conditions such as work for long hours or during the night or work where the child is unreasonably confined to the premises of the employer” [54]
The majority of UN Member States has ratified both C138 and C182. The
Unsafe labour practices
Operating under the mantra that “decent work is safe work,” the ILO Programme on Safety and Health at Work and the Environment, SafeWork, has the goal of making work safer for all. According to the ILO, someone dies from a work-related accident or disease every 15 seconds.
Criticisms
In addition to disagreements about the appropriate method of implementation for international labour standards, there are dissenting opinions concerning the validity of their existence at all. The two most common arguments raised against international labour standards are that they undermine international competitiveness and erode domestic policy.[citation needed]
Undermines international competitiveness
A critique of international labour standards historically raised by right-of-centre economists is that they distort market forces, thus inhibiting employment and income.[12] According to right-wing economists, global free trade allows countries to specialise in those activities in which they have a comparative advantage and to reap mutual gains through exchange. The international competitiveness of countries with large amounts of unskilled labour depends on their ability to provide low-cost workers.[12] Therefore, international standards would undermine any comparative advantage by increasing the cost of labour. According to the conservative argument, international labour standards leave developing nations with a diminished export economy.[64]
Supporters of international labour standards often respond by arguing that this critique only attacks a particular aspect of enforcement rather than the standards themselves. Furthermore, left-of-centre economists suggest that higher labour standards do not necessarily undermine competitiveness.[2] Empirical evidence provided by Berik and Rodgers (2006) suggests that any costs of raising labour standards can easily be offset by incentives encouraging foreign direct investment (FDI) and exports.[2] Following this line of argument, not only do higher labour standards improve social and political stability, thus encouraging more foreign investment, but they also provide valuable investments in human capital that can lead to efficiency gains.[2]
Erodes domestic policy
Another prominent argument against international labour standards is the notion that any attempt to harmonise set benchmarks for acceptable working conditions disregards, to some extent, the current state of an individual country’s unique economic and social climates.[1] It is suggested that rather than adopting an internationally agreed upon group of labour standards, sovereign states are better off leaving labour market regulation to domestic policy.[1] In this way, it is argued, a country can tailor a standard such as a minimum wage to the specific situation in that area of the world rather than trying to implement an ill-fitting uniform wage.[1] In a 1996 study, Drusilla Brown, Alan Deardorff and Robert Stern use a variety of theoretical labour models to test the effectiveness of the harmonisation of international labour standards.[65] The study concludes that in theoretical cases, market failures that allow a breakdown in working environment conditions are most adequately remedied by labour standards.[65] However, market failures are not uniform across countries and so it stands to reason that labour standards should not be constructed in an international way.[citation needed]
An example of this critique can be seen by looking at the issue of child labour practices. The case against harmonised international labour rights makes the point that the amount of child labour in a country is directly dependent on its level of economic development.[6] Following this line of reasoning, poorer countries have a better chance at abolishing child labour through economic development rather than minimum age requirements. In fact, one study found that children 14 years and younger are not completely withdrawn from the labour force until GDP approaches $5000 per capita.[66] Additionally, it is also argued that international consensuses that disparage child labor practices can actually reduce the likelihood of eradicating child labour altogether by weakening incentives for adult workers to support a ban.[67]
See also
- Decent work
- Labor law
- International Labour Organization
- International law
- Capability approach
- Human rights
- Right to work
- Work intensity
- International Labour Organization conventions
- Social inequality
- UK labour law
Notes and references
- ^ a b c d e f g h Brown, Drusilla K., Alan V. Deardorff and Robert M. Stern. "International Labour Standards and Trade: A Theoretical Analysis", Fair trade and harmonisation: Prerequisites for free trade? Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996. 227–272.
- ^ a b c d Berik, Günseli and Yana Rodgers. 2006. "Asia's race to capture post-MFA markets: a snapshot of labour standards, compliance, and impacts on competitiveness", Asian Development Review 23(1): 55–86.
- ^ Maskus, Keith E. "Should core labour standards be imposed through international trade policy?" The World Bank: The Policy Working Paper Series 1 (1999), accessed March 20, 2011.
- ^ a b c d e "Applying and promoting International Labour Standards". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
- ^ K Marx, Report of the General Council to the Fourth Annual Congress (1869)
- ^ a b c d e f Brown, Drusilla K. "Labour standards: Where do they belong on the international trade agenda?" The Journal of Economic Perspectives 15, no. 3 (2001): 89–112, accessed March 20, 2011.
- ^ a b "Origins and History". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
- ^ "ILO between the two world wars 1930". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
- ^ "Brief History and Timeline". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
- ^ "Declaration of Philadelphia" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
- ^ "C087 – Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87)". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g Kabeer, Naila. "Globalisation, labour standards, and women's rights: dilemmas of collective (in)action in an interdependent world", Feminist Economics 10, no. 1 (2004): 3–35, accessed March 18, 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Block, Richard N., Karen Roberts, Cynthia Ozeki and Myron J. Roomkin. "Models of international labour standards", Industrial Relations 40, no. 2 (2001): 258–292.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Berik, Günseli and Yana Van der Meulen Rodgers. "Options for enforcing labour standards: Lessons from Bangladesh and Cambodia", Journal of International Development 22 (2008): 56–85, www.interscience.wiley.com, accessed March 20, 2011.
- ^ U.S. International Trade Commission. 1997. Advice on Providing Additional GSP Benefits for Least Developed Countries. Investigation No. 332-370, Publication 3023, February. At http://www.usitc.go:80/wais/reports/arc/W3023.HTM[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b "Countries Suspended from the GSP Program for Failure to Enforce Internationally Recognised Worker Rights", 1998, Correspondence with Jon Rosenbaum of the Office of the United States Trade Representative.
- ^ Dordrecht, Jan, Karen Paul and Steven D. Lyndenberg. 1992. "Applications of Corporate Social Monitoring Systems", Journal of Business Ethics 11(1):1–11.
- ^ Green, Paula. 1998a. “U.S. Apparel Industry to Monitor World Shops.” Journal of Commerce, October 19, p. 1A.
- ^ Freeman, Richard B. 1994. “A Hard-Headed Look at Labour Standards.” In International Labour Standards and Economic Interdependence, edited by Werner Sengenberger and Duncan Campbell, pp. 79–91. Geneva: ILO>
- ^ Treaty of Versailles 1919, Part XIII, Section I and art 427
- ^ See generally, KD Ewing, Britain and the ILO (2nd edn IER 1994) 16. Two further general working time conventions are the Forty-Hour Week Convention, 1935 No 51 and the Holidays with Pay Convention, 1936 No 52
- private employment agencies, but only Convention 181 is in force.
- ^ "Alphabetical list of ILO member countries", International Labour Organization, accessed April 3, 2011.
- ^ "Declaration: Home page", International Labour Organization, accessed April 3, 2011.
- ^ "Conventions and Recommendations". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
- ^ Steve Hughes and Rorden Wilkinson (1998), "International Labour Standards and World Trade: No Role for the World Trade Organization?", New Political Economy, 3: 3, pp. 375–389
- ^ Singapore Ministerial Declaration (13 December 1996)
- RB Freeman, Can Labor Standards Improve under Globalization? (Institute for International Economics 2003)
- ^ e.g. EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (14 May 2011) OJ 2011 L127, article 13
- ^ Tariff Preference Regulation (EC) No 732/2008 arts 7, 8, 15 and Annex II and III
- ^ [2012] UKSC 1
- Lawson v Serco Ltd [2006] UKHL 3 and Duncombe v Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families[2011] UKSC 36
- ^ Rome I Regulation (Regulation (EC) No 593/2008
- ^ See Rome I, recital 23 and Brussels I, recital 13
- ^ Brussels I Regulation (EC) No 44/2001
- ^ a b Springer, Beverly. 1994. The European Union and Its Citizens: The Social Agenda, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
- ^ (2008) C-319/05
- ^ Liebfried, Stephan and Paul Pierson (eds.). 1995. "Semisovereign Welfare States: Social Policy in a Multitiered Europe", European Social Policy: Between Fragmentation and Integration, pp. 43–77. Washington: The Brookings Institution.
- ^ European Union. 1998a. “Glossary: The Reform of the European Union.” At European Union Internet resources: "European Union Internet Resources". Archived from the original on 2003-04-02. Retrieved 2011-04-25. linked to http://europa.eu.int/en/agenda/igc-home/en/g4000s.htm#s1 Archived 1999-02-08 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Committee on Monitoring International Labour Standards, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, and Policy and Global Affairs (2004). Monitoring international labor standards techniques and sources of information ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
{{cite book}}
:|author=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c "Constitution of the International Labour Organization" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
- ^ a b "Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
- ^ "General Surveys". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-309-52986-0.)
{{cite book}}
:|author=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ "Workplace Discrimination". International Labour Organization. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ Oelz, Martin; Olney, Shauna & Tomei, Manuela (2011-04-27). "Equal Pay: An Introductory Guide". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "A New Era of Social Justice" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "Equality at work: The continuing challenge" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "What is child labour". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "Making progress against child labour" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "C005 – Minimum Age (Industry) Convention, 1919 (No. 5)". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "C138 – Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138)". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "C182 – Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182)". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "Eliminating the worst forms of child labour: A practical guide to ILO Convention No. 182 – Handbook for parliamentarians No. 3, 2002". International Labour Organization. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "ILO Child Labour Convention achieves universal ratification". www.ilo.org. 2020-08-04. Retrieved 2023-09-11.
- ^ "Ratifications of C138 – Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138)". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "Ratifications of C182 – Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182)". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "Safety and health at work". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "Global strategy on occupational safety and health: Conclusions adopted by the International Labour Conference at its 91st Session, 2003". International Labour Organization. January 2004. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "International Labour Standards on Occupational safety and health". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "Ratifications of C155 – Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981 (No. 155)". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "Ratifications of C161 – Occupational Health Services Convention, 1985 (No. 161)". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- ^ "Ratifications of C187 – Promotional Framework for Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 2006 (No. 187)". International Labour Organization. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
- S2CID 154317237.
- ^ a b Brown, Drusilla K., Alan V. Deardorff and Robert M. Stern. fordschool.umich.edu/rsie/workingpapers/ppp.html "International labour standards and trade: A theoretical analysis" Archived 2011-10-20 at the Wayback Machine, Research Seminar in International Economics 3 (1996), accessed March 20, 2011.
- .
- S2CID 158560342.
External links
- International Labour Organization official Web site