Operation Nickel Grass

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An M60 tank being unloaded in Israel by a C-5 Galaxy of the United States Air Force during the 1973 Arab–Israeli War

Operation Nickel Grass was the codename for a strategic airlift conducted by the United States to deliver weapons and supplies to Israel during the 1973 Arab–Israeli War. Between 14 October and 14 November of that year, the Military Airlift Command of the United States Air Force shipped approximately 22,325 tons of supplies, including tanks, artillery, and ammunition, in multiple flights of C-141 Starlifters and C-5 Galaxys.[1][2]: 88  This initiative was undertaken to help improve the position of the Israeli military in the face of a large-scale joint offensive by Egypt and Syria, both of which had been receiving extensive support from the Soviet Union.[1]

On 19 October, nearly two weeks after Egypt's

major oil companies, led to the 1973 oil crisis. Nevertheless, Israel continued to receive support and the war came to an end on 25 October following a ceasefire. OAPEC lifted the embargo in March 1974. The economic impact of the oil crisis influenced the future decisions of American policymakers and decisively reshaped the United States' external policies, especially in the Middle East. The American airlift to Israel and the Arab embargo of the United States greatly transformed the dynamic of the Saudi Arabia–United States relationship.[3]

Background

Israel, as well as the U.S. and most of the world, were caught by surprise on 6 October 1973 when Egypt and Syria attacked the

William Quandt, stated that the ongoing Soviet re-supply effort and Sadat's early rejection of a ceasefire were the primary motivators, not fears of Israeli use of nuclear weapons.[9]

Operation

Initially, only El Al, provided transport, and supplies began to arrive in Israel on 10 October, the same day the first Soviet resupply by air arrived in

St. Louis, Missouri to Ben Gurion Airport. To comply with the demands of other European nations, even U.S. supplies already stationed in Europe were routed through Lajes and soon over thirty aircraft per day were moving through Lajes. To accommodate this, the base grew to house an extra 1,300 people who were billeted in improvised housing and hastily reactivated World War II barracks, rooms that would normally accommodate one or two enlisted men were expanded to four (2 bunk-beds).[11]

Between the Azores and Israel, the aircraft had to follow an extremely precise route. Flying exactly along the airspace border between hostile Arab nations to the south and European nations to the north, the transport craft flew down the middle of the

U.S. 6th Fleet escorted the transports to within 150 miles (240 km) of Israel, where Israeli Air Force Phantoms and Mirages escorted them into Ben Gurion Airport. Along the Mediterranean route, American ships were stationed every 300 miles (480 km), and an aircraft carrier every 600 miles (970 km). These precautions appeared justified when unidentified Arab fighters made threats over the radio, but no conflict ensued. Upon arrival, the transports were unloaded by U.S. and Israeli servicemen before they returned home and supplies were expedited to the front where they arrived within a few hours. The first C-5A transport airplane arrived at Lod airport at 18:30 local time on 14 October.[4]: 114  That same day the Battle of the Sinai had concluded in Israel's favor. A major Egyptian thrust had been stopped with the destruction of many attacking tanks, and Israel was now winning the war.[2]
: 87–88 

An A-4E landing on USS Franklin D. Roosevelt in October 1973.

Airlifted supplies were not all that was delivered under Nickel Grass. In the opening days of the war, Arab forces destroyed significant numbers of IAF aircraft, surprising the Israelis with aggressive use of the new Soviet

Straits of Gibraltar. They then flew on to the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt southeast of Sicily where they stayed overnight, then continued on to Israel refueling once more from tankers launched from the USS Independence south of Crete.[15] Twelve C-130E Hercules transports were also transferred to Israel, the first of the type to be delivered to the IAF.[16]

When the third cease-fire resolution was finally implemented on October 24, the airlift immediately slowed. Further flights were made to rebuild Israeli forces to their pre-war strength and Operation Nickel Grass was ended on 14 November. In the end, the military airlift shipped 22,325 tons of materiel to Israel. Additionally, the U.S. conducted its own seaborne re-supply operation, delivering 33,210 tons to Israel by 30 October.[17] During the same general time, the Soviets airlifted 12,500–15,000 tons of supplies, more than half of which went to Syria; they also supplied another 63,000 tons mainly to Syria by means of a sealift.[17][18]

Effects

Operation Nickel Grass had immediate and far-reaching effects. Arab members of OPEC had declared they would limit or stop oil shipments to the U.S. and other countries if they supported Israel in the conflict. Holding to their threats, the Arab states declared a complete oil embargo on the U.S.. Oil prices skyrocketed, fuel became scarce and the U.S. was soon embroiled in the 1973 oil crisis.[19]

Nickel Grass also revealed a severe deficiency in American airlift capabilities: the need for staging bases overseas. Without Portugal's assistance, the airlift might not even have been possible. As a result, the U.S. greatly expanded its aerial refueling capabilities and made long-distance flight operations the standard rather than the exception.[1]

A GAO study of the operation discussed the shortcomings of the C-141A. As a result, the C-141B was conceived. The A models were sent back to Georgia where they were cut fore and aft of the wing, extended in length by three pallet positions, and refitted for in-flight refueling.[20]

Nickel Grass vindicated the USAF decision to purchase the C-5 Galaxy. Since its introduction in 1970, the C-5 had been plagued by problems. The USAF claimed to have rectified the problems, but the C-5 was still viewed by the press as an expensive failure. During Nickel Grass, C-5s carried 48% of the total cargo in only 145 of the 567 total missions. The C-5 also carried "outsize" cargo such as

CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters and A-4 Skyhawk components, cargo that could not fit in smaller aircraft. This performance justified the C-5's existence.[1]

General George Brown, Chairman of the American Joint Chiefs of Staff, resigned after criticizing the resupply effort. According to Time magazine, Brown's criticisms included the opinion that the airlift was driven in part by Jews controlling the American banking system.[21][22]

See also

References

  1. ^
    ISSN 0730-6784. Archived from the original
    on 31 March 2012.
  2. ^
    ISBN 9781846032882
    .
  3. ^ Arnon Gutfeld and Clinton R. Zumbrunnen, "From Nickel Grass to Desert Storm: The Transformation of US Intervention Capabilities in the Middle East." Middle Eastern Studies 49.4 (2013): pp. 623-644.
  4. ^
    ISBN 9780520225152
    .
  5. ^
    Air War College. Archived from the original on 14 September 2000. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help
    )
  6. ^ Cohen, Avner (6 October 2003). "The Last Nuclear Moment". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  7. ^ "Memorandum of Conversation between Ambassador Simcha Dinitz and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger" (PDF). National Security Archive. 9 October 1973. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  8. ^
    ISSN 1076-8858
    . Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  9. ^ Colby, Elbridge; Cohen, Avner; McCants, William; Morris, Bradley; Rosenau, William (April 2013). "The Israeli 'Nuclear Alert' of 1973: Deterrence and Signaling in Crisis" (PDF). CNA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 October 2014.
  10. ^ Burr, William, ed. (7 October 2003). "The October War and U.S. Policy". National Security Archive. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  11. ^ Easly, David (4 November 2010). "Leadership lessons from history". Lajes Field. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016.
  12. ISBN 9781136328886
    .
  13. ^ "Memorandum of Conversation between Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and Israeli Generals" (PDF). National Security Archive. 22 October 1973. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  14. ^ "Phantoms Phorever, Part 3: Israel". ACIG Database. Air Combat Information Group. 16 November 2003. Archived from the original on 6 June 2004.
  15. ^ Weinland, Robert G. (June 1978). "Superpower Naval Diplomacy in the October 1973 Arab-Israeli War" (PDF). Professional Papers (221). CNA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  16. ^ Olausson, Lars (April 2010). Lockheed Hercules Production List 1954–2012 (28th ed.). Såtenäs, Sweden: Self-published.
  17. ^ a b el-Shazly, Saad (1980). The Crossing of the Suez. San Francisco: American Mideast Research. pp. 274–276. el-Shazly states: "...the USA mounted a seaborne resupply operation of 33,210 tons by October 30" and "...the Soviet Union mounted a sea-borne resupply operation: no less than 63,000 tons, mainly to Syria, by October 30."
  18. Rand Corporation. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 2 October 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  19. ^ "Oil Embargo, 1973–1974". Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations. Office of the Historian, State Department. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  20. ^ "C-141B Starlifter". Air Mobility Command Museum. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  21. ^ Crooke, Alastair; Perry, Mark (13 October 2006). "How Israel Defeated Hezbollah, Part II: Winning the Ground War". Asia Times. Hong Kong: Asia Times Holdings. Archived from the original on 28 December 2010. Retrieved 7 October 2019 – via ConflictsForum.org. Alt URL
  22. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original
    on December 1, 2010. Retrieved 8 January 2012.

Further reading

External links
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