Ostertagia ostertagi
Ostertagia ostertagi | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Nematoda |
Class: | Chromadorea |
Order: | Rhabditida |
Family: | Trichostrongylidae |
Genus: | Ostertagia |
Species: | O. ostertagi
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Binomial name | |
Ostertagia ostertagi (Stiles, 1892)
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Ostertagia ostertagi, commonly known as the medium stomach worm or brown stomach worm, is a
The abomasal nematode O. ostertagi is a clade V nematode of the order Strongylida, the family Trichostrongylidae and genus Ostertagia.[1] Ransom first described the genus Ostertagia in 1907, which currently contains approximately 15 species. All species of the genus Ostertagia infect domestic or wild ruminants. These species form a large and complex group, the taxonomy of which has not been fully elucidated.
Life cycle
O. ostertagi has a life cycle which consists of two stages: the free-living, pre-parasitic stage and the parasitic stage in the host (e.g. cattle).
The parasitic stage of the life cycle begins when warm moist conditions cause the L3 larvae to migrate onto herbage surrounding the fecal pat, which are ingested during grazing. In the host's
The normal prepatent period for O. ostertagi is 21 days. However, under certain circumstances, ingested L3 larvae can suspend their maturation and become dormant as inhibited L4 larvae inside the gastric glands. This arrested development is called
Morphology
O. ostertagi adults are slender reddish-brown worms. Adult males are 6–7 mm (0.24–0.28 in) long, adult females 8–11 mm (0.31–0.43 in) long, and the eggs 70–86 μm (0.0028–0.0034 in) long. Identification of adult medium stomach worms is based on the structure of the bursa, genital cone, and spicules in males and on the dimensions of the
The infective L3 larvae of O. ostertagi can also be identified morphologically. The L3 will have an external sheath. The larva head is rounded and can be distinguished from
Molecular biology
The genome size estimate for O. ostertagi is ~58 MB, based on T. circumcincta (Ostertagia circumcincta), whose genome is 58.6 MB and on H. contortus at 52 MB, based on flow cytometry.[12] There are 7,006 identified expressed sequenced tags (ESTs), representing 2,564 genes.[13]
Disease
Clinical ostertagiosis normally occurs in first grazing season calves but can affect mature animals.
Type I disease
Type I disease occurs in young cattle grazing on pastures for their first time during the period of high pasture contamination.[18][19] This syndrome usually occurs in the summer and fall months in the Northern hemisphere and during the winter and spring months in the Southern hemisphere.[20] Infective larvae are ingested daily by the young stock on pasture. The pathological and clinical signs are due to the direct development of large numbers of L3 larvae to adult worms over a relatively short period of time (approximately 3 weeks) in young animals with an immune system naïve to Ostertagia infections.[21] The young adult worms then break out of the gastric glands, causing substantial damage to the abomasal wall. Mild cases result in reduced growth or production and severe cases can result in fulminating disease characterized by profuse watery diarrhoea, rapid weight loss, submandibular oedema ("bottle jaw"), anemia and death.[22][23]
Type II disease
Type II disease can occur in yearlings and older cattle.[24] It is the result of arrested L4s resuming their development to immature adults and leaving the gastric glands.[25][26] This can occur weeks or months after being ingested as L3s and is a consequence of favourable environmental conditions.[27] The larvae will then resume maturation gradually or in bursts. The clinical signs are identical to type I disease and the severity depends on the magnitude of the eruptions.[28] In the Northern hemisphere type II disease is often seen in the early spring, and in the fall in the Southern hemisphere.[29]
Pathology
Worms can readily be seen and identified in the abomasum, and small
When examined histologically, abomasal gastric glands contain larvae in varying stages of development, which results in hyperplasia and distention of the glands, and flattening of the glandular epithelium. Affected glands lack differentiated acid-producing parietal and pepsinogen producing chief cells. Type I and type II disease is often differentiated by the presence of increased numbers of globule leucocytes, eosinophils and focal aggregates of lymphoplasmocytic cells in animals with type II disease.[31]
Pathophysiology
Consequences of the damage done to the gastric gland by O. ostertagi include:
- Due to increased abomasal pH, proteins are not denatured and digested. Dietary energy and protein, which would otherwise be used for growth, must be used to replace these proteins. Weight loss is the result.[33]
- Also due to the increased abomasal pH, there is an increase in the number of bacteria in the abomasum, which can contribute to the diarrhoea seen in clinical cases.[34][35]
- Movement of serum proteins, particularly albumin from the circulating blood into the abomasal lumen due to compromised intracellular junctions occur. The increased albumin decreases fluid absorption by the gut, causing diarrhoea. The loss of albumin also causes body fluids to collect in lower parts of the body such as under the jaw (bottle jaw) or in the abdomen (ascites).
- The increased abomasal pH also stimulates the production of gastrin and thus hypergastrinemia, which is closely associated with the inappetence. This parasite-associated drop in intake has been shown to be largely responsible for impaired weight gain.
Immune response and host defence
Gastrointestinal nematodes may elicit a variety of host immune responses depending on the initial immune status of the host, parasite species, and environmental conditions. The body has several physical defense mechanisms against parasites including the continual sloughing of the gut epithelium to prevent parasite attachment. However, once an infection has occurred, the host's immune system attempts to limit the damage caused by the worm. Apart from the importance of the extrinsic factors of weather, climate and grazing management, the immune status of cattle is perhaps the most significant of all host factors influencing infection with O. ostertagi. Unlike other common gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle, who are subject to a quick host immune response after relatively short periods of exposure and immune system memory, a protective host immune response against O. ostertagi requires far longer periods of exposure and is not always permanent. The failure to respond quickly to Ostertagia may be a result of the suggested immunosuppression or impairment of antibody and cellular responses.[36] O. ostertagi has been shown to induce cytokines and T-cells in the adaptive immune response in cattle, and recent advances have been made to produce suitable vaccines targeting adult stage Ostertagia.[37][38][39] The major limitations to reducing parasitic load using vaccines is the complex and dynamic host-parasite interaction that is unique to each species of host and parasite, which is often influenced by several environmental factors.[40]
Diagnosis
The presence of O. ostertagi within a host may be inferred by several methods. Faecal worm egg counts (FECs) in particular (preferably with speciation by way of larval culture and differentiation), and total worm counts are the tests most commonly employed in the diagnosis of
Treatment and control strategies
There are several classes of
Drench resistance
Given the importance of effective parasite control, there is heightened concern over reduced anthelmintic efficacy. There is a broad range of current literature reporting developing resistance of O. ostertagi to all major classes of anthelmintic worldwide including the United States, New Zealand, Brazil, Argentina, and the UK.[54][55][56] As recently as January 2016, O. ostertagi anthelmintic resistance was reported to all three major drug classes on 20 dairy farms in Southern Australia[57] The two most widely accepted anthelmintic resistance diagnosis methods for O. ostertagi are in vivo methods: the fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) and the controlled efficacy test (CET). The World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP) has provided guidelines on the detection of anthelmintic resistance.[58]
References
- ^ Blaxter, M. L., De Ley, P., Garey, J. R., Liu, L. X., Scheldeman P., Vierstraete, A., Vanfleteren, J. R., Mackey, L. Y., Dorris, M., Frisse, L. M., Vida, J. T., and Thomas W. K. 1998. A molecular evolutionary framework for the phylum Nematoda. Nature 392: 71–75.
- ^ Fox, M. T. 2014. Gastrointestinal Parasites of Cattle: Gastrointestinal Parasites of Ruminants: Merck Veterinary Manual. Merck Veterinary Manual. Retrieved from http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/digestive_system/gastrointestinal_parasites_of_ruminants/gastrointestinal_parasites_of_cattle.html
- ^ Lichtenfels JR, H. E. 1993. The systematics of nematodes that cause ostertagiasis in domestic and wild ruminants in North America: an update and a key to species. Vet Parasitol 46: 33–53.
- ISBN 978-0-470-67162-7.
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- ^ Lichtenfels JR, H. E. 1993. The systematics of nematodes that cause ostertagiasis in domestic and wild ruminants in North America: an update and a key to species. Vet Parasitol 46: 33–53.
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- ^ Casser, R. B., Ranganathan, S., Baillie, D., Sternberg, P., Mitreva, M., Mardis, E., and Wilson, R. K. 2007. Whole genome sequences of nematodes of the order strongylida. Proposal. http://eprints.ugd.edu.mk/2898/. Accessed online March 22, 2016.
- ^ Casser, R. B., Ranganathan, S., Baillie, D., Sternberg, P., Mitreva, M., Mardis, E., and Wilson, R. K. 2007. Whole genome sequences of nematodes of the order strongylida. Proposal. http://eprints.ugd.edu.mk/2898/. Accessed online March 22, 2016.
- ^ Merial. 2001. Ostertagia ostertagi. Online Producer Publication: http://us.merial.com/producers/pdfs/Ostertagia_ostertagi.pdf Archived 2017-05-10 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed March 23, 2016.
- ^ Gibbs, H. C. 1988. The epidemiology of bovine ostertagiasis in the north temperate regions of North America. Vet Parasitol 27: 39–47.
- ^ Gibbs, H. C. 1988. The epidemiology of bovine ostertagiasis in the north temperate regions of North America. Vet Parasitol 27: 39–47.
- ISBN 140817572X
- ^ Merial. 2016. Endoparasites – Ostertagia. Online Publication: http://www.merial.co.nz/Cattle/beef/disease_information/Pages/oster.aspx. Accessed March 23, 2016.
- ^ Beck, M. A., Colwell, D. D., Goater, C. P., Kienzle, S. W. 2015. Where's the risk? Landscape epidemiology of gastrointestinal parasitism in Alberta beef cattle. Parasit Vectors 8: 434.
- ^ Stromberg, B. E. 1997. Environmental factors influencing transmission. Vet Parasitiol 72: 247–264.
- ^ Merial. 2016. Endoparasites – Ostertagia. Online Publication: http://www.merial.co.nz/Cattle/beef/disease_information/Pages/oster.aspx. Accessed March 23, 2016.
- ^ Merial. 2016. Endoparasites – Ostertagia. Online Publication: http://www.merial.co.nz/Cattle/beef/disease_information/Pages/oster.aspx. Accessed March 23, 2016.
- ^ Williams, J. C., Knox, J. W., and Loyacano, A. F. 1993. Epidemiology of Ostertagia ostertagi in weaner-yearling cattle. Vet Parasitol 46: 313–324.
- ^ Merial. 2016. Endoparasites – Ostertagia. Online Publication: http://www.merial.co.nz/Cattle/beef/disease_information/Pages/oster.aspx. Accessed March 23, 2016.
- ^ Eysker, M. 1993. The role of inhibited development in the epidemiology of Ostertagia infections. Vet Parasitol 46: 259–269.
- ^ Eysker, M. 1993. The role of inhibited development in the epidemiology of Ostertagia infections. Vet Parasitol 46: 259–269.
- ^ Merial. 2016. Endoparasites – Ostertagia. Online Publication: http://www.merial.co.nz/Cattle/beef/disease_information/Pages/oster.aspx. Accessed March 23, 2016.
- ^ Fox, M. T. (2014). Gastrointestinal Parasites of Cattle: Gastrointestinal Parasites of Ruminants: Merck Veterinary Manual. Merck Veterinary Manual. Retrieved from http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/digestive_system/gastrointestinal_parasites_of_ruminants/gastrointestinal_parasites_of_cattle.html.
- ^ Vercruysse, J., Charlier, J., Dorny, P., and Claerebout, E. 2006. Diagnosis of helminth infections in cattle : World Buiatrics Congress.
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- ^ De Graef, J., Claerebout, E., and Geldhof, P. 2013. Anthelmintic resistance of gastrointestinal cattle nematodes. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 82: 113–123.