Páramo
Páramo (Spanish pronunciation:
Location
The Northern Andean Páramo global ecoregion includes the Cordillera Central páramo (Ecuador, Peru), Santa Marta páramo (Colombia), Cordillera de Merida páramo (Venezuela) and Northern Andean páramo (Colombia, Ecuador) terrestrial ecoregions.[4] The Costa Rican páramo in Costa Rica and Panama is another páramo ecoregion. In the strictest sense of the term, all páramo ecosystems are in the
In Venezuela, the páramo occurs in the
The majority of the páramo ecosystems occur in the
Climate
Páramo climates differ slightly depending on the specific location. In Colombia and northern Ecuador, air masses from the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) have a substantial effect on the climate, and these regions tend to be consistently humid (approx. 70–85%)[2] throughout the year. The Andes also play a key role in the climate of these regions as they cause an orographic uplift in which moist air rises. This creates continuous moisture via rain, clouds, and fog, with many of them receiving over 2,000 mm (79 in) of rain annually.[2]
The páramos of the northernmost Andes of Venezuela, northern Colombia, and Costa Rica experience a different climate due to the dry season, which is caused by northeasterly trade winds. Southern Ecuador and northern Peru experience the most severe dryness as they are influenced by an air mass from the Amazon Basin, which releases its moisture on the eastern slopes, as well as another air mass from the west that is influenced by the Humboldt Current.
Overall, páramo climates are known for their daily fluctuations in temperature and humidity. While they are generally cold and humid ecosystems, they often undergo a sudden and drastic change in weather in which they fluctuate between temperatures from below freezing to 10 °C (50 °F). This oscillation often results in a daily freeze-and-thaw cycle.[2] Mean annual temperatures of páramo ecosystems range from 2 to 10 °C (36 to 50 °F), with increasingly colder temperatures at higher latitudes.[8]
Soils
Soils in páramo ecosystems vary, but most are young and partially weathered. The soil has a relatively low pH because of an abundance of moisture and organic content. Organic content, even within disturbed sites averages very high which contributes to water retention in the soil. During cold and wet weather, there are few nutrients available and productivity is very low in páramo soils.[9] Soils in páramo ecosystems have changed because of human activity, especially due to burning vegetation to clear land for grazing.
Soils in the south Ecuadorian páramo are characterized broadly into
Vegetation zones
Páramos are divided into separate zones based on elevation and vegetative structure, with the three main types of páramo vegetation unequally distributed throughout different zones. As of 2021[update], more than 3,000 plant species have been discovered in the páramo.[11]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Azorella_peduculata_%2814401587732%29.jpg/220px-Azorella_peduculata_%2814401587732%29.jpg)
Superpáramo is at the highest elevation and is usually considered to be the transition zone between the higher, permanent snow region and the lower grass páramo zone. The superpáramo zone is generally narrow and exists atop loose stones and sandy soils at about 4,500–4,800 m (14,800–15,700 ft). It has the lowest air temperature, precipitation level, soil water-holding capacity, and nutrient content of all the zones. Being the highest in elevation, it also has the highest levels of solar radiation and night frost. For this reason, vegetation in the superpáramo must be highly resistant to such severe fluctuations in weather. Air temperatures are low—cold at night and cool during the day—with daily oscillations greater than the oscillations of monthly averages.[2] Due to its localization on high mountains, this area is the least disturbed by humans and contains the most endemic species of all the zones. Flora includes Azorella pedunculata of the family Apiaceae and species from the families Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Ericaceae.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Bl%C3%BChende_Rosetten.jpg/220px-Bl%C3%BChende_Rosetten.jpg)
The most broadly described zone is the grass páramo. Grass páramos cover large areas of mountain ranges, while others are limited to small areas on slopes and summits of very high mountains.
Subpáramo is the lowest and most diverse zone. At 3,000–3,500 m (9,800–11,500 ft), it is a shrub-dominated zone that combines aspects of both the grass páramo above and the forest below. Along with shrubs, this zone also contains small, scattered trees which gradually transition into the grasses and herbs of the grass páramo above. Plant communities in this vegetation zone are also known to include thickets that are mainly composed of shrubby or woody vegetation, including species from the genera
Lichens are widely distributed in all types of paramos, however different growth forms may be favoured by environmental conditions. For example, extreme conditions associated with rocky substrates and high elevations favour crustose lichens,[13][14] while foliose and fruticose lichens are associated with less extreme conditions and mid altitudes.[15][16] The atmospheric factors such as humidity and temperature positively favour taller lichens, due to an increase in locally available water.[17]
Fauna
The vegetation of the páramo provides shelter and habitat for a variety of mammals, birds, insects, amphibians, and reptiles. Some animals commonly found in páramo ecosystems include the
Sixty-nine species of birds are considered to be "total users" of páramo habitats, with "41 species making it their primary habitat and 16 as
Hummingbirds, bees and flies are all important pollinators in the páramo, while birds and smaller mammals such as rabbits and guinea pigs are important seed dispersers. Many of the larger mammals of the páramo are rare due to hunting.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Echinopyrrhosia.jpg/220px-Echinopyrrhosia.jpg)
Human impact and climate change
Humans have inhabited the páramo of the Andes for approximately the past 15,000 years. Deforestation has been extensive and in some cases, like the northern Andes, 90-95% of forests have been cleared. Other sites in Venezuela and Colombia show evidence that humans settled there at least 800 years ago and used the land for agriculture and hunting.[2]
When Europeans came to the Americas they introduced exotic plants and animals that greatly affected the land, especially cattle, which were introduced to the páramos in the early 18th century. By the 20th century the growing population of settlers led to an increased demand for land, and páramo ecosystems suffered accordingly. As more land was needed for cattle, fire was used to clear land, and eventually páramos became excessively burned and overgrazed. Both burning and grazing have damaged vegetation, soils, species diversity, and water storage capacity of the páramos. In burned and disturbed sites that were studied in the Andes the pH and phosphorus concentration in the soil are higher than in non-burned sites.[19]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Erosioenparamo.jpg/220px-Erosioenparamo.jpg)
Climate change is becoming an increasingly pressing issue for páramo ecosystems. Growing populations in Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador have forced settlements in higher elevations covering more páramo. Recent developments such as construction of aqueducts, drainage systems, and roads, mining, and afforestation have been a huge additional páramo disturbance.[11]
Increases in temperature extremes are forcing many fauna and flora species to higher grounds, and eventually they could face extinction. The flora of páramos is adapted to specific conditions and is thus vulnerable to even small climate changes. Climate change in the Andes is causing glaciers in the páramo to disappear and a drop in rainfall, virtually drying up páramo and in turn, drying up the water supply for cities such as Quito, Ecuador and Bogotá, Colombia.
On 8 February 2016, the Constitutional Court of Colombia banned all mining operations in the paramos, prioritising the protection of the environment, and terminating 347 mining licenses that had operational rights in the ecosystem.[20]
Cultural References
The 2023 short documentary, "Sun and Thunder" about La Nasa indigenous activist Nora Taquines, was filmed in the páramo region. [21]
The feature film, "A Vanishing Fog" was filmed in the páramo.
References
- ^ S2CID 25470421.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Luteyn, James L. (1999). Páramos: A Checklist of Plant Diversity, Geographical Distribution, and Botanical Literature. Bronx, New York: New York Botanical Garden Press.
- New York Times. Retrieved November 8, 2013.
- ^ Northern Andean Paramo. WWF Global. Archived from the original on 2017-02-05. Retrieved 2017-04-17.
- S2CID 130796411.
- ^ "Paramo Wildlife Refuge".
- ^ Marbache, Julie. "National Parks". Archived from the original on 18 December 2011. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
- )
- JSTOR 1552063.
- . Retrieved 2 November 2011.
- ^ a b Rasolt, Daniel Henryk (13 May 2021). "Páramos at Risk: The Interconnected Threats to a Biodiversity Hotspot". Resilience. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
- S2CID 84854511.
- S2CID 86050570.
- S2CID 6275428.
- ^ Armstrong, RA; Welch, AR (2007). "Competition in lichen communities". Symbiosis. 43 (1): 1–12.
- ^ Ceron, BW; Quintero, ALP (2009). "Estructura de una comunidad de líquenes y morfología del género Sticta (Stictaceae) en un gradiente altitudinal". Acta Biológica Colombiana (in Spanish). 14 (3): 157.
- ^ Monge-Nájera, J (2019). "Relative humidity, temperature, substrate type, and height of terrestrial lichens in a tropical paramo. Revista de Biología Tropical". 67 (1): 206–212.
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(help) - ^ a b c "Biodiversity: Paramo Regions". Retrieved 29 November 2011.
- JSTOR 1552216.
- ^ "Decisión de la Corte frena 347 títulos mineros en páramos". El Tiempo (in Spanish). 8 February 2016.
- ^ Wise, Monica; Noriega, Christina (15 June 2023). "Sun and Thunder" (short documentary). 52 Documentary Series. Voice of America. Retrieved 14 Nov 2023.
Further reading
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- Nieto Escalante, Juan Antonio; et al. (2010). Geografía de Colombia [Geography of Colombia] (in Spanish). Bogotá: Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi. ISBN 978-958-8323-38-1.
- Wills, Fernando; et al. (2001). Nuestro patrimonio, 100 tesoros de Colombia [Our heritage, 100 treasures of Colombia] (in Spanish). Bogotá: El Tiempo. ISBN 958-8089-16-6.