Ecuador

Republic of Ecuador República del Ecuador  (Spanish)
Flag Coat of arms
Motto:  Dios, patria y libertad ( White 0.1% other
Religion (2020)[5]	86.7% Christianity 69.0% Catholicism 16.6% Protestantism 1.1% other Christian 12.9% no religion 0.4% other
Demonym(s)	Ecuadorian
Government	Unitary presidential republic
• President	Daniel Noboa
• Vice President	Verónica Abad Rojas
Legislature	National Assembly
Independence
• Declared	10 August 1809
• from Spain	24 May 1822
• from Gran Colombia	13 May 1830
• Recognized by Spain	16 February 1840[6]
• Liberal Revolution	5 June 1895
• Current constitution	28 September 2008
GALT)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy
Drives on	right
Calling code	+593
ISO 3166 code	EC
Internet TLD	.ec
Sucre until 2000, replaced by the US dollar and Ecuadorian centavo coins.

Ecuador,^[a] officially the Republic of Ecuador,^[b] is a country in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1,000 kilometers (621 mi) west of the mainland. The country's capital is Quito and its largest city is Guayaquil.^[20]

The territories of modern-day Ecuador were once home to a variety of

One of 17 megadiverse countries in the world,^[23][24] Ecuador hosts many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. In recognition of its unique ecological heritage, the new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable rights of nature.^[25]

The country's name means "

Various peoples had settled in the area of future Ecuador before the arrival of the

Even though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar groups of cultures, each based in different environments. The people of the coast combined agriculture with fishing, hunting, and gathering; the people of the highland Andes developed a sedentary agricultural way of life; and peoples of the Amazon basin relied on hunting and gathering; in some cases, this is combined with agriculture and arboriculture.

Many civilizations

New infectious diseases such as

The 1797 Riobamba earthquake, which caused up to 40,000 casualties, was studied by Alexander von Humboldt, when he visited the area in 1801–1802.^[38]

After nearly 300 years of Spanish rule, Quito still remained small with a population of 10,000 people. On 10 August 1809, the city's

On 9 October 1820, the Department of

The Liberal Revolution of 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and the conservative land owners. This liberal wing retained power until the military "Julian Revolution" of 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by instability and emergence of populist politicians, such as five-time President José María Velasco Ibarra.

After Ecuador's separation from Colombia on 13 May 1830, its first President, General Juan José Flores, laid claim to the territory that had belonged to the Real Audiencia of Quito, also referred to as the Presidencia of Quito. He supported his claims with Spanish Royal decrees, or real cedulas, that delineated the borders of Spain's former overseas colonies. In the case of Ecuador, Flores based Ecuador's de jure claims on the Real Cedulas of 1563, 1739, and 1740; with modifications in the Amazon Basin and Andes Mountains that were introduced through the Treaty of Guayaquil (1829) which Peru reluctantly signed, after the overwhelmingly outnumbered Gran Colombian force led by Antonio José de Sucre defeated President and General La Mar's Peruvian invasion force in the Battle of Tarqui. In addition, Ecuador's eastern border with the Portuguese colony of Brazil in the Amazon Basin was modified before the Wars of Independence by the First Treaty of San Ildefonso (1777) between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire. Moreover, to add legitimacy to his claims, on 16 February 1840, Flores signed a treaty with Spain, whereby Flores convinced Spain to officially recognize Ecuadorian independence and its sole rights to colonial titles over Spain's former colonial territory known anciently to Spain as the Kingdom and Presidency of Quito.

Ecuador during its long and turbulent history has lost most of its contested territories to each of its more powerful neighbors, such as Colombia in 1832 and 1916, Brazil in 1904 through a series of peaceful treaties, and Peru after a short war in which the Protocol of Rio de Janeiro was signed in 1942.

During the struggle for independence, before Peru or Ecuador became independent, areas of the former Vice Royalty of New Granada declared themselves independent from Spain. A few months later, a part of the Peruvian liberation army of San Martín decided to occupy the independent cities of Tumbez and Jaén, with the intention of using them as springboards to occupy the independent city of Guayaquil and then liberate the rest of the Audiencia de Quito (Ecuador). It was common knowledge among officers of the liberation army from the south that their leader San Martín wished to liberate present-day Ecuador and add it to the future republic of Peru, since it had been part of the Inca Empire before the Spaniards conquered it. However, Bolívar's intention was to form a new republic known as the Gran Colombia, out of the liberated Spanish territory of New Granada which consisted of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador. San Martín's plans were thwarted when Bolívar, descended from the Andes mountains and occupied Guayaquil; they also annexed the newly liberated Audiencia de Quito to the Republic of Gran Colombia.

In the south, Ecuador had claims to a small piece of land beside the Pacific Ocean known as

The war ended when an outnumbered southern Gran Colombian army at Battle of Tarqui on 27 February 1829, led by Antonio José de Sucre, defeated the Peruvian invasion force led by President La Mar. This defeat led to the signing of the Treaty of Guayaquil in September 1829, whereby Peru and its Congress recognized Gran Colombian rights over Tumbes, Jaén, and Maynas. Through meetings between Peru and Gran Colombia, the border was set as Tumbes river in the west, and in the east, the Maranon and Amazon rivers were to be followed toward Brazil as the most natural borders between them. According to the peace negotiations Peru agreed to return Guayaquil, Tumbez, and Jaén; despite this, Peru returned Guayaquil, but failed to return Tumbes and Jaén, alleging that it was not obligated to follow the agreements, since the Gran Colombia ceased to exist when it divided itself into three different nations – Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.

The Central District of the Gran Colombia, known as Cundinamarca or New Granada (modern Colombia) with its capital in Bogota, did not recognize the separation of the Southern District of the Gran Colombia, with its capital in Quito, from the Gran Colombian federation on 13 May 1830. After Ecuador's separation, the

When Ecuador seceded from the Gran Colombia, Peru contested Ecuador's claims with the newly discovered Real Cedula of 1802, by which Peru claims the King of Spain had transferred these lands from the Viceroyalty of New Granada to the Viceroyalty of Peru. During colonial times this was to halt the ever-expanding Portuguese settlements into Spanish domains, which were left vacant and in disorder after the expulsion of Jesuit missionaries from their bases along the Amazon Basin. Ecuador countered by labeling the Cedula of 1802 an ecclesiastical instrument, which had nothing to do with political borders. Peru began its de facto occupation of disputed Amazonian territories, after it signed a secret 1851 peace treaty in favor of Brazil. This treaty disregarded Spanish rights that were confirmed during colonial times by a Spanish-Portuguese treaty over the Amazon regarding territories held by illegal Portuguese settlers.

Peru began occupying the missionary villages in the Mainas or Maynas region, which it began calling Loreto, with its capital in Iquitos. During its negotiations with Brazil, Peru claimed Amazonian Basin territories up to Caqueta River in the north and toward the Andes Mountain range. Colombia protested stating that its claims extended south toward the Napo and Amazon Rivers. Ecuador protested that it claimed the Amazon Basin between the Caqueta river and the Marañon-Amazon river. Peru ignored these protests and created the Department of Loreto in 1853 with its capital in Iquitos. Peru briefly occupied Guayaquil again in 1860, since Peru thought that Ecuador was selling some of the disputed land for development to British bond holders, but returned Guayaquil after a few months. The border dispute was then submitted to Spain for arbitration from 1880 to 1910, but to no avail.^[42]

In the early part of the 20th century, Ecuador made an effort to peacefully define its eastern Amazonian borders with its neighbours through negotiation. On 6 May 1904, Ecuador signed the Tobar-Rio Branco Treaty recognizing Brazil's claims to the Amazon in recognition of Ecuador's claim to be an Amazonian country to counter Peru's earlier Treaty with Brazil back on 23 October 1851. Then after a few meetings with the Colombian government's representatives an agreement was reached and the Muñoz Vernaza-Suarez Treaty was signed 15 July 1916, in which Colombian rights to the Putumayo river were recognized as well as Ecuador's rights to the Napo river and the new border was a line that ran midpoint between those two rivers. In this way, Ecuador gave up the claims it had to the Amazonian territories between the Caquetá River and Napo River to Colombia, thus cutting itself off from Brazil. Later, a brief war erupted between Colombia and Peru, over Peru's claims to the Caquetá region, which ended with Peru reluctantly signing the Salomon-Lozano Treaty on 24 March 1922. Ecuador protested this secret treaty, since Colombia gave away Ecuadorian claimed land to Peru that Ecuador had given to Colombia in 1916.

On 21 July 1924, the Ponce-Castro Oyanguren Protocol was signed between Ecuador and Peru where both agreed to hold direct negotiations and to resolve the dispute in an equitable manner and to submit the differing points of the dispute to the United States for arbitration. Negotiations between the Ecuadorian and Peruvian representatives began in Washington on 30 September 1935. The negotiations turned into arguments during the next 7 months and finally on 29 September 1937, the Peruvian representatives decided to break off the negotiations.^{[citation needed]}

In 1941, amid fast-growing tensions within disputed territories around the Zarumilla River, war broke out with Peru. Peru claimed that Ecuador's military presence in Peruvian-claimed territory was an invasion; Ecuador, for its part, claimed that Peru had recently invaded Ecuador around the Zarumilla River and that Peru since Ecuador's independence from Spain has systematically occupied Tumbez, Jaén, and most of the disputed territories in the Amazonian Basin between the Putomayo and Marañon Rivers. In July 1941, troops were mobilized in both countries. Peru had an army of 11,681 troops who faced a poorly supplied and inadequately armed Ecuadorian force of 2,300, of which only 1,300 were deployed in the southern provinces. Hostilities erupted on 5 July 1941, when Peruvian forces crossed the Zarumilla river at several locations, testing the strength and resolve of the Ecuadorian border troops. Finally, on 23 July 1941, the Peruvians launched a major invasion, crossing the Zarumilla river in force and advancing into the Ecuadorian province of El Oro.

During the course of the

The 1944 Glorious May Revolution followed a military-civilian rebellion and a subsequent civic strike which successfully removed Carlos Arroyo del Río as a dictator from Ecuador's government. However, a post-Second World War recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In 1972, construction of the Andean pipeline was completed. The pipeline brought oil from the east side of the Andes to the coast, making Ecuador South America's second largest oil exporter.

In 1978, the city of

The

Ecuador and Peru signed the Brasilia Presidential Act peace agreement on 26 October 1998, which ended hostilities, and effectively put an end to the Western Hemisphere's longest running territorial dispute.^[44] The Guarantors of the Rio Protocol (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States of America) ruled that the border of the undelineated zone was to be set at the line of the Cordillera del Cóndor. While Ecuador had to give up its decades-old territorial claims to the eastern slopes of the Cordillera, as well as to the entire western area of Cenepa headwaters, Peru was compelled to give to Ecuador, in perpetual lease but without sovereignty, 1 km² (0.39 sq mi) of its territory, in the area where the Ecuadorian base of Tiwinza – focal point of the war – had been located within Peruvian soil and which the Ecuadorian Army held during the conflict. The final border demarcation came into effect on 13 May 1999, and the multi-national MOMEP (Military Observer Mission for Ecuador and Peru) troop deployment withdrew on 17 June 1999.^[44]

In 1972, a "revolutionary and nationalist" military junta overthrew the government of Velasco Ibarra. The coup d'état was led by General Guillermo Rodríguez and executed by navy commander Jorge Queirolo G. The new president exiled José María Velasco to Argentina. He remained in power until 1976, when he was removed by another military government. That military junta was led by Admiral Alfredo Poveda, who was declared chairman of the Supreme Council. The Supreme Council included two other members: General Guillermo Durán Arcentales and General Luis Pintado. The civil society more and more insistently called for democratic elections. Colonel Richelieu Levoyer, Government Minister, proposed and implemented a Plan to return to the constitutional system through universal elections. This plan enabled the new democratically elected president to assume the duties of the executive office.

Elections were held on 29 April 1979, under a new constitution. Jaime Roldós Aguilera was elected president, garnering over one million votes, the most in Ecuadorian history. He took office on 10 August as the first constitutionally elected president, after nearly a decade of civilian and military dictatorships. In 1980, he founded the Partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia (People, Change, and Democracy Party) after withdrawing from the Concentración de Fuerzas Populares (Popular Forces Concentration). He governed until 24 May 1981, when he died, along with his wife and the minister of defense Marco Subia Martinez, when his Air Force plane crashed in heavy rain near the Peruvian border. Many people believe that he was assassinated by the CIA,^[45] given the multiple death threats against him because of his reformist agenda, the deaths in automobile crashes of two key witnesses before they could testify during the investigation, and the sometimes contradictory accounts of the incident. Roldos was immediately succeeded by Vice President Osvaldo Hurtado.

In 1984,

Jaime Roldos and founder of the Ecuadorian Roldosist Party). His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja government negotiated the disbanding of the small terrorist group, "¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!" ("Alfaro Lives, Dammit!"), named after Eloy Alfaro. However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID party, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1999.

A notable event was the Cenepa War fought between Ecuador and Peru in 1995.

Ecuador won its first Olympic medal in the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta when Jefferson Pérez won gold in the 20 km walk.

Ecuador adopted the United States dollar on 13 April 2000 as its national currency and on 11 September, the country eliminated the Ecuadorian sucre, in order to stabilize the country's economy.^[46] The US Dollar has been the only official currency of Ecuador since then.^[47]

The emergence of the Amerindian population as an active constituency has added to the democratic volatility of the country in recent years. The population has been motivated by government failures to deliver on promises of land reform, lower unemployment and provision of social services, and the historical exploitation by the land-holding elite. Their movement, along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by both the elite and leftist movements, has led to a deterioration of the executive office. The populace and the other branches of government give the president very little political capital, as illustrated by the most recent removal of President Lucio Gutiérrez from office by Congress in April 2005.^[48] Vice President Alfredo Palacio took his place^[49]

In the

A series of protests began on 3 October 2019 against the end of fuel subsidies and austerity measures adopted by Moreno. On 10 October, protesters overran Quito, the capital, causing the Government of Ecuador to relocate temporarily to Guayaquil.^[64] The government eventually returned to Quito in 2019.^[65] On 14 October 2019, the government restored fuel subsidies and withdrew an austerity package, which ended nearly two weeks of protests.^[66]

In the 11 April 2021

In October 2021, Lasso declared a 60-day state of emergency to combat crime and drug-related violence,[70] including the numerous bloody clashes between rival groups in the state prisons.^[71] Lasso proposed a series of constitutional changes to enhance his government's ability to respond to crime. In a referendum in February 2023, voters overwhelmingly rejected his proposed changes, which weakened Lasso's political standing.^[72]

On 15 October 2023, centrist candidate Daniel Noboa won the premature presidential election with 52.3% of the vote against leftist candidate Luisa González.^[73] On 23 November 2023, Noboa was sworn in.^[74]

In January 2024, Noboa declared an "internal armed conflict" against organised crime, in response to the escape of imprisoned leader of the Los Choneros cartel, José Adolfo Macías Villamar (also known as "Fito"), and an armed attack at a public television channel.^[75][76]

The Ecuadorian State consists of five branches of government: the Executive Branch, the Legislative Branch, the Judicial Branch, the Electoral Branch, and Transparency and Social Control.

Ecuador is governed by a democratically elected president for a four-year term. The president of Ecuador exercises his power from the presidential Palacio de Carondelet in Quito. The current constitution was written by the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly elected in 2007, and was approved by referendum in 2008. Since 1936, voting is compulsory for all literate persons aged 18–65, optional for all other citizens over the age of 16.^[77][78]

The executive branch includes 23 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors (mayors, aldermen, and parish boards) are directly elected. The

The

The legislative branch is embodied by the

Ecuador's judiciary has as its main body the Judicial Council, and also includes the National Court of Justice, provincial courts, and lower courts. Legal representation is made by the Judicial Council. The National Court of Justice is composed of 21 judges elected for a term of nine years. Judges are renewed by thirds every three years pursuant to the Judicial Code. These are elected by the Judicial Council on the basis of opposition proceedings and merits. The justice system is buttressed by the independent offices of public prosecutor and the public defender. Auxiliary organs are as follows: notaries, court auctioneers, and court receivers. Also there is a special legal regime for Amerindians.

The electoral system functions by authorities which enter only every four years or when

The Transparency and Social Control consists of the Council for Citizen Participation and Social Control, an ombudsman, the Comptroller General of the State, and the superintendents. Branch members hold office for five years. This branch is responsible for promoting transparency and control plans publicly, as well as plans to design mechanisms to combat corruption, as also designate certain authorities, and be the regulatory mechanism of accountability in the country.

Ecuador joined the

In 2017, the Ecuadorian parliament adopted a law on human mobility.[81]

The International Organization for Migration lauded Ecuador as the first state to have established the promotion of the concept of universal citizenship in its constitution, aiming to promote the universal recognition and protection of the human rights of migrants.^[82] In March 2019, Ecuador withdrew from the Union of South American Nations.^[83]

A 2003 Amnesty International report was critical that there were scarce few prosecutions for human rights violations committed by security forces, and those only in police courts, which are not considered impartial or independent. There are allegations that the security forces routinely torture prisoners. There are reports of prisoners having died while in police custody. Sometimes the legal process can be delayed until the suspect can be released after the time limit for detention without trial is exceeded. Prisons are overcrowded and conditions in detention centers are "abominable".^[84]

According to Human Rights Watch (HRW) former president Correa intimidated journalists and subjected them to "public denunciation and retaliatory litigation". The sentences to journalists were years of imprisonment and millions of dollars of compensation, even though defendants had been pardoned.^[85] Correa stated he was only seeking a retraction for slanderous statements.^[86]

According to HRW, Correa's government weakened the

The laws also forbid articles and media messages that could favor or disfavor some political message or candidate. In the first half of 2012, twenty private TV or radio stations were closed down.[85] People engaging in public protests against environmental and other issues are prosecuted for "terrorism and sabotage", which may lead to an eight-year prison sentence.^[85]

According to Freedom House, restrictions on the media and civil society have decreased since 2017.^[88] In October 2022, the United Nations expressed concerns about the dire situation in various detention centers and prisons, and the human rights of those deprived of liberty in Ecuador.^[89]

Ecuador is divided into 24 provinces (Spanish: provincias), each with its own administrative capital:

Regionalization, or zoning, is the union of two or more adjoining provinces in order to decentralize the administrative functions of the capital, Quito. In Ecuador, there are seven regions, or zones, each shaped by the following provinces:

• Region 1 (42,126 km², or 16,265 mi²):
  Sucumbios. Administrative city: Ibarra
• Region 2 (43,498 km², or 16,795 mi²):
  Napo, and Orellana. Administrative city: Tena
• Region 3 (44,710 km², or 17,263 mi²):
  Riobamba
• Region 4 (22,257 km², or 8,594 mi²):
  Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas. Administrative city: Ciudad Alfaro
• Region 5 (38,420 km², or 14,834 mi²):
  Guayas, Los Ríos, Galápagos, and Bolívar. Administrative city: Milagro
• Region 6 (38,237 km², or 14,763 mi²):
  Cuenca
• Region 7 (27,571 km², or 10,645 mi²):
  Zamora Chinchipe. Administrative city: Loja

The

Due to the continuous border disputes with Peru, finally settled in the early 2000s, and due to the ongoing problem with the Colombian guerrilla insurgency infiltrating Amazonian provinces, the Ecuadorian Armed Forces has gone through a series of changes. In 2009, the new administration at the Defense Ministry launched a deep restructuring within the forces, increasing spending budget to $1,691,776,803, an increase of 25%.[92]

The Military Academy General Eloy Alfaro (c. 1838) located in Quito is in charge of graduating army officers.^[93] The Ecuadorian Navy Academy (c. 1837), located in Salinas graduates navy officers.^[94] The Air Academy "Cosme Rennella (c. 1920), also located in Salinas, graduates air force officers.^[95]

According to the CIA, Ecuador has a total area of 283,571 km² (109,487 sq mi), including the Galápagos Islands. Of this, 276,841 km² (106,889 sq mi) is land and 6,720 km² (2,595 sq mi) water.^[2] The total area, according to the Ecuadorian government's foreign ministry, is 256,370 km² (98,985 sq mi).^[96] The Galápagos Islands are sometimes considered part of Oceania,^{[97][98][99][100][101][102][103]} which would thus make Ecuador a transcontinental country under certain definitions. Ecuador is bigger than Uruguay, Suriname, Guyana and French Guiana in South America.

Ecuador lies between latitudes 2°N and 5°S, bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and has 2,337 km (1,452 mi) of

• La Costa, or "the coast": The coastal region consists of the provinces to the west of the Andean range –
  Dole and Chiquita. This region is also where most of Ecuador's rice crop is grown. The truly coastal provinces have active fisheries. The largest coastal city is Guayaquil
  .
• La Sierra, or "the highlands": The sierra consists of the Andean and Interandean highland provinces – Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha, Bolívar, Cotopaxi and Tungurahua. This land contains most of Ecuador's volcanoes and all of its snow-capped peaks. Agriculture is focused on the traditional crops of potato, maize, and quinua and the population is predominantly Amerindian Kichua. The largest Sierran city is Quito.
• La Amazonía, also known as El Oriente, or "the east": The oriente consists of the
  Waorani and Kichua, although there are numerous tribes in the deep jungle which are little-contacted. The largest city in the Oriente Lago Agrio
  in Sucumbíos.
• La Región Insular is the region comprising the Galápagos Islands, some 1,000 kilometers (620 mi) west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean.

Ecuador's capital and second largest city^[

The Andes is the watershed divisor between the

Amazon watershed, which runs to the east, and the Pacific, including the north–south rivers Mataje, Santiago, Esmeraldas, Chone, Guayas

, Jubones, and Puyango-Tumbes.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Ecuador

There is great variety in the climate, largely determined by altitude. It is mild year-round in the mountain valleys, with a

temperate

and relatively dry, and the Amazon basin on the eastern side of the mountains shares the climate of other rainforest zones.

Because of its location at the equator, Ecuador experiences little variation in daylight hours during the course of a year. Both sunrise and sunset occur each day at the two six o'clock hours.^[2]

The country has seen its seven glaciers lose 54.4% of their surface in forty years. Research predicts their disappearance by 2100. The cause is climate change, which threatens both the fauna and flora and the population.^[107]

Biodiversity

Ecuador is one of seventeen megadiverse countries in the world according to Conservation International,^[23] and it has the most biodiversity per square kilometer of any nation.^[108][109]

Ecuador has 1,600 bird species (15% of the world's known bird species) in the continental area and 38 more

Theory of Evolution, and as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[110]

Ecuador has the first constitution to recognize the

rights of nature.^[111] The protection of the nation's biodiversity is an explicit national priority as stated in the National Plan of "Buen Vivir", or good living, Objective 4, "Guarantee the rights of nature", Policy 1: "Sustainably conserve and manage the natural heritage, including its land and marine biodiversity, which is considered a strategic sector".^[108]

As of the writing of the plan in 2008, 19% of Ecuador's land area was in a protected area; however, the plan also states that 32% of the land must be protected in order to truly preserve the nation's biodiversity.^[108] Current protected areas include 11 national parks, 10 wildlife refuges, 9 ecological reserves, and other areas.^[112] A program begun in 2008, Sociobosque, is preserving another 2.3% of total land area (6,295 km², or 629,500 ha) by paying private landowners or community landowners (such as Amerindian tribes) incentives to maintain their land as native ecosystems such as native forests or grasslands. Eligibility and subsidy rates for this program are determined based on the poverty in the region, the number of hectares that will be protected, and the type of ecosystem of the land to be protected, among other factors.^[113] Ecuador had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.66/10, ranking it 35th globally out of 172 countries.^[114]

Despite being on the UNESCO list, the Galápagos are endangered by a range of negative environmental effects, threatening the existence of this exotic ecosystem.^[115] Additionally, oil exploitation of the Amazon rainforest has led to the release of billions of gallons of untreated wastes, gas, and crude oil into the environment,^[116] contaminating ecosystems and causing detrimental health effects to Amerindian peoples.^[117][118] One of the best known examples is the Texaco-Chevron case.^[119] This American oil company operated in the Ecuadorian Amazon region between 1964 and 1992. During this period, Texaco drilled 339 wells in 15 petroleum fields and abandoned 627 toxic wastewater pits. It is now known that these highly polluting and now obsolete technologies were used as a way to reduce expenses.^[120]

In 2022, the supreme court of Ecuador decided that "under no circumstances can a project be carried out that generates excessive sacrifices to the collective rights of communities and nature." It also required the government to respect the opinion of Indigenous peoples about different industrial projects on their land.^[121]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Ecuador

Ecuador has a

crisis. In January 2009, the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE) put the 2010 growth forecast at 6.88%.^[124] In 2011, its GDP grew at 8% and ranked third highest in Latin America, behind Argentina (2nd) and Panama (1st).^[125] Between 1999 and 2007, GDP doubled, reaching $65,490 million according to BCE.^[126]

The inflation rate until January 2008, was about 1.14%, the highest in the past year, according to the government.[127]^[128] The monthly unemployment rate remained at about 6 and 8 percent from December 2007 until September 2008; however, it went up to about 9 percent in October and dropped again in November 2008 to 8 percent.^[129] Unemployment mean annual rate for 2009 in Ecuador was 8.5% because the global economic crisis continued to affect the Latin American economies. From this point, unemployment rates started a downward trend: 7.6% in 2010, 6.0% in 2011, and 4.8% in 2012.^[130]

The extreme poverty rate declined significantly between 1999 and 2010.^[131] In 2001, it was estimated at 40% of the population, while by 2011 the figure dropped to 17.4% of the total population.^[132] This is explained to an extent by emigration and the economic stability achieved after adopting the U.S. dollar as official means of transaction (before 2000, the Ecuadorian sucre was prone to rampant inflation). However, starting in 2008, with the bad economic performance of the nations where most Ecuadorian emigrants work, the reduction of poverty has been realized through social spending, mainly in education and health.^[133]

Oil accounts for 40% of exports and contributes to maintaining a positive trade balance.^[134] Since the late 1960s, the exploitation of oil increased production, and proven reserves are estimated at 6.51 billion barrels as of 2011^[update].^[135] In late 2021, Ecuador had to declare a Force majeure for oil exports due to erosion near key pipelines (privately owned OCP pipeline and state-owned SOTE pipeline) in the Amazon.^[136] It lasted about three weeks, totalling just over $500 million economic losses, before their production returned to its normal level of 435,000 barrels per day (69,200 m³/d) in early 2022.^[137]

The overall trade balance for August 2012 was a surplus of almost $390 million for the first six months of 2012, a huge figure compared with that of 2007, which reached only $5.7 million; the surplus had risen by about $425 million compared to 2006.^[132] The oil trade balance positive had revenues of $3.295 million in 2008, while non-oil was negative, amounting to $2.842 million. The trade balance with the United States, Chile, the European Union, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, and Mexico is positive. The trade balance with Argentina, Colombia, and Asia is negative.^[138]

In the agricultural sector, Ecuador is a major exporter of bananas (first place worldwide in export^[139]), flowers, and the seventh largest producer of cocoa.^[140] Ecuador also produces coffee, rice, potatoes, cassava (manioc, tapioca), plantains and sugarcane; cattle, sheep, pigs, beef, pork and dairy products; fish, and shrimp; and balsa wood.^[141] The country's vast resources include large amounts of timber across the country, like eucalyptus and mangroves.^[142] Pines and cedars are planted in the region of La Sierra and walnuts, rosemary, and balsa wood in the Guayas River Basin.^[143] The industry is concentrated mainly in Guayaquil, the largest industrial center, and in Quito, where in recent years the industry has grown considerably. This city is also the largest business center of the country.^[144] Industrial production is directed primarily to the domestic market.^{[citation needed]} Despite this, there is limited export of products produced or processed industrially.^{[citation needed]} These include canned foods, liquor, jewelry, furniture, and more.^{[citation needed]} A minor industrial activity is also concentrated in Cuenca.^[145] Incomes from tourism has been increasing during the last few years due to promotion programs from Government, highlighting the variety of climates and the biodiversity of Ecuador.

Ecuador has negotiated bilateral treaties with other countries, besides belonging to the

Andean Community of Nations,^[146] and an associate member of Mercosur.^[147] It also serves on the World Trade Organization (WTO), in addition to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), CAF – Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean and other multilateral agencies.^{[148][149][150]} In April 2007, Ecuador paid off its debt to the IMF.^[151]

The public finance of Ecuador consists of the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE), the National Development Bank (BNF), the State Bank.

Sciences and research

NEE-01 Pegasus

Ecuador was placed in 96th position of innovation in technology in a 2013 World Economic Forum study.^[152] Ecuador was ranked 104th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.^[153][154] The most notable icons in Ecuadorian sciences are the mathematician and cartographer Pedro Vicente Maldonado, born in Riobamba in 1707, and the printer, independence precursor, and medical pioneer Eugenio Espejo, born in 1747 in Quito. Among other notable Ecuadorian scientists and engineers are Lieutenant Jose Rodriguez Labandera,^[155] a pioneer who built the first submarine in Latin America in 1837; Reinaldo Espinosa Aguilar, a botanist and biologist of Andean flora; and José Aurelio Dueñas, a chemist and inventor of a method of textile serigraphy.

The major areas of scientific research in Ecuador have been in the medical fields, tropical and infectious diseases treatments, agricultural engineering, pharmaceutical research, and bioengineering. Being a small country and a consumer of foreign technology, Ecuador has favored research supported by entrepreneurship in information technology. The antivirus program Checkprogram, banking protection system MdLock, and Core Banking Software Cobis are products of Ecuadorian development.^[156]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Ecuador

Ecuador is a country with vast natural wealth. The diversity of its four regions has given rise to thousands of species of flora and fauna. It has approximately 1640 kinds of birds. The species of butterflies border 4,500, the reptiles 345, the amphibians 358, and the mammals 258, among others. Ecuador is considered one of the 17 countries where the planet's highest biodiversity is concentrated, being also the largest country with diversity per km2 in the world. Most of its fauna and flora live in 26 protected areas by the state.

The country has two cities with UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Quito and Cuenca, as well as two natural UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Galapagos Islands and Sangay National Park, in addition to one World Biosphere Reserve, such as the Cajas Massif. Culturally, the Toquilla straw hat and the culture of the Zapara indigenous people are recognized. The most popular sites for national and foreign tourists have different nuances due to the various tourist activities offered by the country.

Among the main tourist destinations are:

• Nature attractions:
  Yasuni National Park, El Cajas National Park, Sangay National Park, Podocarpus National Park, Vilcabamba, Baños de Agua Santa
  .
• Cultural attractions: Historic center of Quito, Ciudad Mitad del Mundo, Ingapirca, Historic center of Cuenca, Latacunga and its Mama Negra festival.
• Snowy mountains: Antisana volcano, Cayambe volcano, Chimborazo volcano, Cotopaxi volcano, Illinizas volcanoes.
• Beaches: Atacames, Bahía de Caráquez, Crucita, Esmeraldas, Manta, Montañita, Playas, Salinas

Transport

Main article: Transport in Ecuador

The rehabilitation and reopening of the Ecuadorian railroad and use of it as a tourist attraction is one of the recent developments in transportation matters.^[157]

The roads of Ecuador in recent years have undergone important improvement. The major routes are Pan American (under enhancement from four to six lanes from Rumichaca to Ambato, the conclusion of four lanes on the entire stretch of Ambato and Riobamba and running via Riobamba to Loja). In the absence of the section between Loja and the border with Peru, there are the Route Espondilus or Ruta del Sol (oriented to travel along the Ecuadorian coastline) and the Amazon backbone (which crosses from north to south along the Ecuadorian Amazon, linking most and more major cities of it).

Another major project is developing the road Manta – Tena, the highway Guayaquil – Salinas Highway Aloag Santo Domingo, Riobamba – Macas (which crosses Sangay National Park). Other new developments include the National Unity bridge complex in Guayaquil, the bridge over the Napo river in Francisco de Orellana, the Esmeraldas River Bridge in the city of the same name, and, perhaps the most remarkable of all, the Bahia – San Vincente Bridge, being the largest on the Latin American Pacific coast.

Cuenca's tramway is the largest public transport system in the city and the first modern tramway in Ecuador. It was inaugurated on 8 March 2019. It has 20.4 kilometers (12.7 mi) and 27 stations. It will transport 120,000 passagers daily. Its route starts in the south of Cuenca and ends in the north at the Parque Industrial neighbourhood.

The Mariscal Sucre International Airport in Quito and the José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport in Guayaquil have experienced a high increase in demand and have required modernization. In the case of Guayaquil it involved a new air terminal, once considered the best in South America and the best in Latin America^[158] and in Quito where an entire new airport has been built in Tababela and was inaugurated in February 2013, with Canadian assistance. However, the main road leading from Quito city center to the new airport will only be finished in late 2014, making current travelling from the airport to downtown Quito as long as two hours during rush hour.^[159] Quito's old city-center airport is being turned into parkland, with some light industrial use.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Ecuador

See also:

Ecuadorian people and Indigenous peoples in Ecuador

Ecuador's population is ethnically diverse and the 2021 estimates put Ecuador's population at 17,797,737.^[160][161] The largest ethnic group (as of 2010^[update]) is the Mestizos, who are mixed race people of Amerindian and European descent, typically from Spanish colonists, in some cases this term can also include Amerindians that are culturally more Spanish influenced, and constitute about 71% of the population (although including the Montubio, a term used for coastal Mestizo population, brings this up to about 79%).

The White Ecuadorians are a minority accounting for 6.1% of the population of Ecuador and can be found throughout all of Ecuador, primarily around the urban areas. Even though Ecuador's white population during its colonial era were mainly descendants from Spain, today Ecuador's white population is a result of a mixture of European immigrants, predominantly from Spain with people from Italy, Germany, France, and Switzerland who have settled in the early 20th century. In addition, there is a small European Jewish (

Ecuadorian Jews) population, which is based mainly in Quito and to a lesser extent in Guayaquil.^[162] 5,000 Romani people live in Ecuador.^[163]

Ecuador also has a small population of Asian origins, mainly those from West Asia, like the economically well off descendants of Lebanese and Palestinian immigrants, who are either Christian or Muslim (see Islam in Ecuador), and an East Asian community mainly consisting of those of Japanese and Chinese descent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farmhands and fishermen in the late 19th century.^[2]

Amerindians account for 7% of the current population. The mostly rural Montubio population of the coastal provinces of Ecuador, who might be classified as Pardo account for 7.4% of the population.

The

Afro-Ecuadorians are a minority population (7%) in Ecuador, that includes the Mulattos and zambos

, and are largely based in the Esmeraldas province and to a lesser degree in the predominantly Mestizo provinces of Coastal Ecuador – Guayas and Manabi. In the Highland Andes where a predominantly Mestizo, white and Amerindian population exist, the African presence is almost non-existent except for a small community in the province of Imbabura called Chota Valley.

Language

Main article: Languages of Ecuador

Languages in Ecuador[164]
Language			percent
Spanish			93%
Kichwa			4.1%
Foreign			2.2%
Other Indigenous			0.7%

Spanish is the official language in Ecuador. It is spoken as a first (93%) or second language (6%) by the vast majority of its population. In 1991 Northern

Paicoca (spoken by the Siona and Secoya), and Wao Tededeo

(spoken by the Waorani). Use of these Amerindian languages is gradually diminishing and being replaced by Spanish.

Most Ecuadorians speak Spanish as their first language, with its ubiquity permeating and dominating most of the country. Despite its small size, the country has a marked diversity in Spanish accents that vary widely among regions. Ecuadorian Spanish idiosyncrasies reflect the ethnic and racial populations that originated and settled the distinct areas of the country.

The three main regional variants are:

• Equatorial Pacific Spanish or Equatorial Coastal Spanish
• Andean Spanish
• Amazonic Spanish

Religion

Main article: Religion in Ecuador

Religion in Ecuador (2014)[165]
Religion			percent
Catholic			79%
Protestant			13%
Irreligious			5%
Other			3%

According to the Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census, 91.95% of the country's population have a religion, 7.94% are

Evangelical Protestants, 1.29% are Jehovah's Witnesses and 6.97% other (mainly Jewish, Buddhists and Latter-day Saints).^[166][167]

In the rural parts of Ecuador, Amerindian beliefs and Catholicism are sometimes syncretized into a local form of folk Catholicism. Most festivals and annual parades are based on religious celebrations, many incorporating a mixture of rites and icons.^[168]

There is a small number of

Buddhists and Baháʼí. According to their estimates, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accounts for about 1.4% of the population, or 211,165 members at the end of 2012.^[169] According to their sources there were 92,752 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country in 2017.^[170]

The

Cuenca. The "Comunidad de Culto Israelita" reunites the Jews of Guayaquil. This community works independently from the "Jewish Community of Ecuador" and is composed of only 30 people.^[173]

Health

Main article: Health in Ecuador

The current structure of the Ecuadorian public health care system dates back to 1967.^[174][175] The Ministry of the Public Health (Ministerio de Salud Pública del Ecuador) is the responsible entity of the regulation and creation of the public health policies and health care plans. The Minister of Public Health is appointed directly by the President of the Republic.

The philosophy of the Ministry of Public Health is the social support and service to the most vulnerable population,

medical missions

away from the big cities to provide medical health to poor communities.

The public healthcare system allows patients to be treated without an appointment in public general hospitals by general practitioners and specialists in the outpatient clinic (Consulta Externa) at no cost. This is done in the four basic specialties of pediatric, gynecology, clinic medicine, and surgery.^[177] There are also public hospitals specialized to treat chronic diseases, target a particular group of the population, or provide better treatment in some medical specialties.

Although well-equipped general hospitals are found in the major cities or capitals of provinces, there are basic hospitals in the smaller towns and

canton cities for family care consultation and treatments in pediatrics, gynecology, clinical medicine, and surgery.^[177]

Community health care centers (Centros de Salud) are found inside metropolitan areas of cities and in rural areas. These are day hospitals that provide treatment to patients whose hospitalization is under 24 hours.[177] The doctors assigned to rural communities, where the Amerindian population can be substantial, have small clinics under their responsibility for the treatment of patients in the same fashion as the day hospitals in the major cities. The treatment in this case respects the culture of the community.^[177]

The public healthcare system should not be confused with the Ecuadorian Social Security healthcare service, which is dedicated to individuals with formal employment and who are affiliated obligatorily through their employers. Citizens with no formal employment may still contribute to the social security system voluntarily and have access to the medical services rendered by the social security system. The Ecuadorian Institute of Social Security (IESS) has several major hospitals and medical sub-centers under its administration across the nation.^[178]

Ecuador currently ranks 20, in most

efficient health care countries, compared to 111 back in the year 2000.^[179] Ecuadorians have a life expectancy of 77.1 years.^[180] The infant mortality rate is 13 per 1,000 live births,^[181] a major improvement from approximately 76 in the early 1980s and 140 in 1950.^[182] Almost a quarter, or 23%, of children under five are chronically malnourished.^[181] Population in some rural areas have no access to potable water, and its supply is provided by mean of water tankers. There are 686 malaria cases per 100,000 people.^[183] Basic health care, including doctor's visits, basic surgeries, and basic medications, has been provided free since 2008.^[181]

However, some public hospitals are in poor condition and often lack necessary supplies to attend the high demand of patients. Private hospitals and clinics are well equipped but still expensive for the majority of the population.

Between 2008 and 2016, new public hospitals have been built. In 2008, the government introduced universal and compulsory social security coverage. In 2015, corruption remains a problem. Overbilling is recorded in 20% of public establishments and in 80% of private establishments.[184]

Education

Main article: Education in Ecuador

The Ecuadorian Constitution requires that all children attend school until they achieve a "basic level of education", which is estimated at nine school years.^[185] In 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 96.9%, and 71.8% of children stayed in school until the fifth grade/age 10.^[185] The cost of primary and secondary education is borne by the government, but families often face significant additional expenses such as fees and transportation costs.^[185]

Provision of public schools falls far below the levels needed, and class sizes are often very large, and families of limited means often find it necessary to pay for education.^[186] In rural areas, only 10% of the children go on to high school.^[187] In a 2015 report, The Ministry of Education states that in 2014 the mean number of school years completed in rural areas is 7.39 as compared to 10.86 in urban areas.^[188]

Largest cities

See also: List of cities in Ecuador

The five largest cities in the country are

Santo Domingo (458,580 inhabitants), and Ambato (387,309 inhabitants). The most populated metropolitan areas of the country are those of Guayaquil, Quito, Cuenca, Manabí Centro (Portoviejo-Manta) and Ambato.^[189]

Largest cities or towns in Ecuador According to the 2020 population projections[1]
	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.
Quito Guayaquil	1	Quito	Pichincha	2,781,641	11	Riobamba	Chimborazo	264,048	Cuenca Santo Domingo
	2	Guayaquil	Guayas	2,723,665	12	Ibarra	Imbabura	221,149
	3	Cuenca	Azuay	636,996	13	Esmeraldas	Esmeraldas	218,727
	4	Santo Domingo	Santo Domingo	458,580	14	Quevedo	Los Ríos	213,842
	5	Ambato	Tungurahua	387,309	15	Latacunga	Cotopaxi	205,624
	6	Portoviejo	Manabí	321,800	16	Milagro	Guayas	199,835
	7	Durán	Guayas	315,724	17	Santa Elena	Santa Elena	188,821
	8	Machala	El Oro	289,141	18	Babahoyo	Los Ríos	175,281
	9	Loja	Loja	274,112	19	Daule	Guayas	173,684
	10	Manta	Manabí	264,281	20	Quinindé	Esmeraldas	145,879

Immigration and emigration

See also: Emigration from Ecuador

Ecuador houses a small East Asian community mainly consisting of those of Japanese and Chinese descent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farmhands and fishermen in the late 19th century.^[2]

In the early years of World War II, Ecuador still admitted a certain number of immigrants, and in 1939, when several South American countries refused to accept 165

Jewish refugees from Germany aboard the ship Koenigstein, Ecuador granted them entry permits.^[190]

Migration from

Roman Catholics

.

In the early 1900s, there was immigration from

Britons, Irish and Greeks. The town of Ancón experienced of wave of immigration from the UK starting in 1911, when the Government of Ecuador conceded 98 mines, occupying an area of 38,842 hectares, to the British oil company Anglo Ecuadorian Oilfields. Today, the Anglo American Oilfields or Anglo American plc is the world's largest producer of platinum, with around 40% of world output, as well as being a major producer of diamonds, copper, nickel, iron ore and steelmaking coal. Alberto Spencer is one famed Briton that hailed from Ancon. The town has now become an attraction due to the austere British homes in "El Barrio Ingles" situated in a contrasting tropical setting.^[195][196]

In the 1950s, the Italians were the third largest national group in terms of numbers of immigrants. It can be noted that, after World War I, people from Liguria, still constituted the majority of the flow, even though they then represented only one third of the total number of immigrants in Ecuador. This situation came from the improvement of the economic situation in Liguria. The classic paradigm of the Italian immigrant today was not that of the small trader from Liguria as it had been before; those who emigrated to Ecuador were professionals and technicians, employees and religious people from South-Central Italy. It must be remembered that many immigrants, a remarkable number of Italians among them, moved to the Ecuadorian port from Peru to escape from the Peruvian war with Chile. The Italian government came to be more interested in the emigration phenomenon in Ecuador because of the necessity of finding an outlet for the large number of immigrants who traditionally went to the United States but who could no longer enter this country because of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 that restricted immigration of Southern and Eastern Europeans as well as other "undesirables".

Most of these communities and their descendants are located in the Guayas region of the country.^[197]

Throughout the 20th century, immigration also came from other

Venezuelan crisis. Authorities argue that an estimated 350,000 to 400,000 Colombians live in Ecuador, porous borders and lack of formal registration disallow concrete numbers.^[199]

From 2007, the Ecuador government created multiple initiatives to attract Ecuadorians abroad mostly from the

La Decada Perdida. These policies resulted in the rapid and significant rise in the flow of returning nationals, most notably during the 2008 economic crisis that affected Europe and North America.^[200][201]

In recent years,^[when?] Ecuador has grown in popularity among North American expatriates.^[202]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Ecuador

Ecuador's dominant culture is defined by its mestizo majority and, like its ancestry, is traditionally of Spanish heritage, influenced in different degrees by Amerindian traditions and in some cases by Spanish elements non-Europeans and Africans. The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Ecuador consisted of Spanish colonist, following the arrival of Europeans in 1499. A lower number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and in smaller numbers, Poles, Lithuanians, English, Irish, Croatians and some cases from Asia during and after the Second World War.

Waorani

man with the typical Amazonian indigenous clothes

Ecuador's Amerindian communities are integrated into the mainstream culture to varying degrees,

Amerindian

languages; in some cases, they are used as a second language. Two percent of the population speak only Amerindian languages.

Media

Main articles: Television in Ecuador and List of newspapers in Ecuador

Music

Main article: Music of Ecuador

The music of Ecuador has a long history. Pasillo is a genre of indigenous Latin music. In Ecuador it is the "national genre of music". Through the years, many cultures have brought their influences together to create new types of music. There are also different kinds of traditional music like albazo, pasacalle, fox incaico, tonada, capishca, Bomba (highly established in Afro-Ecuadorian societies), and so on. Tecnocumbia and Rockola are clear examples of the influence of foreign cultures. One of the most traditional forms of dancing in Ecuador is Sanjuanito. It is originally from northern Ecuador (Otavalo-Imbabura). Sanjuanito is a type of dance music played during festivities by the mestizo and Amerindian communities. According to the Ecuadorian musicologist Segundo Luis Moreno, Sanjuanito was danced by Amerindian people during San Juan Bautista's birthday. This important date was established by the Spaniards on 24 June, coincidentally the same date when Amerindian people celebrated their rituals of Inti Raymi.

Cuisine

See also: List of Ecuadorian dishes and foods

Ceviche ecuatoriano (Ecuadorian-style ceviche) and Cuy asado (grilled guinea pig) are some of the typical dishes.

Ecuadorian cuisine is diverse, varying with the altitude, associated agricultural conditions, and ethnic/racial communities. Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional three-course meal of soup, a course that includes rice and a protein, and then dessert and coffee to finish.

In the coastal region, seafood is very popular, with fish, shrimp, and ceviche being an integral part of the diet. Beef is also notably consumed in the coastal region, traditional dishes are churrasco and arroz con menestra y carne asada (rice with beans and grilled beef) served with fried plantain. The latter is an emblematic dish of the city of Guayaquil. Meat based dishes have their origins in the cattle ranching culture of the Montubio people.

Plantain- and peanut-based dishes are quite frequent in the coastal region reflecting the West African roots of many of its citizens. Encocados (dishes that contain a coconut sauce) are also very popular in the northern coast centering around the city of Esmeraldas. The coast is also a leading producer of bananas, cocoa beans (to make chocolate), shrimp, tilapia, mango, and passion fruit, among other products.^{[citation needed}

]

Pan de yuca, analogous with the Brazilian pão de queijo, is served with "yogur persa" and is often eaten as a snack in many coastal cities. Its origin comes from the Persian and Middle Eastern populations that settled the coast.^[204]

In the highland region, various dishes of pork, chicken, and cuy (guinea pig)

Guinea Pig

, de rigueur in mostly indigenous communities, reflects the predominantly native character of the highlands. Considered a delicacy it is often characterized as having a mild pork flavor.

In the Amazon region, a dietary staple is the yuca, elsewhere called cassava. Many fruits are available in this region, including bananas, tree grapes, and peach palms.^[207]

Literature

Early literature in colonial Ecuador, as in the rest of Spanish America, was influenced by the

Quechua. The use of Quipu was banned by the Spanish,^[209] and in order to preserve their work, many Inca poets had to resort to the use of the Latin alphabet to write in their native Quechua language. The history behind the Inca drama "Ollantay", the oldest literary piece in existence for any Amerindian language in America,^[210] shares some similarities with the work of Collahuazo. Collahuazo was imprisoned and all of his work burned. The existence of his literary work came to light many centuries later, when a crew of masons was restoring the walls of a colonial church in Quito and found a hidden manuscript. The salvaged fragment is a Spanish translation from Quechua of the "Elegy to the Dead of Atahualpa",^[208]

a poem written by Collahuazo, which describes the sadness and impotence of the Inca people of having lost their king Atahualpa.

Other early Ecuadorian writers include the Jesuits

Juan Leon Mera, famous for his work "Cumanda" or "Tragedy among Savages" and the Ecuadorian National Anthem; Juan A. Martinez with A la Costa; Dolores Veintimilla;^[211]

and others.

Contemporary Ecuadorian writers include the novelist

Jorge Icaza

(author of the novel Huasipungo, translated to many languages); the short story author Pablo Palacio; and the novelist Alicia Yanez Cossio.

Art

The best known art styles from Ecuador belonged to the

Ecuadorian painters include Eduardo Kingman, Oswaldo Guayasamín, and Camilo Egas from the Indiginist Movement; Manuel Rendon, Jaime Zapata, Enrique Tábara, Aníbal Villacís, Theo Constanté, Luis Molinari, Araceli Gilbert, Judith Gutiérrez, Félix Aráuz, and Estuardo Maldonado from the Informalist Movement; Teddy Cobeña from expressionism and figurative style^{[213][214][215]} and Luis Burgos Flor with his abstract, futuristic style. The Amerindian people of Tigua, Ecuador, are also world-renowned for their traditional paintings.^[216]

Sports

Main article: Sport in Ecuador

The most popular

Deportivo Cuenca from Cuenca. Currently the most successful football team in Ecuador is LDU Quito, and it is the only Ecuadorian team that has won the Copa Libertadores; they were also runners-up in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup. The Estadio Monumental Isidro Romero Carbo is the tenth largest football stadium in South America. The Ecuador national football team has appeared at four FIFA World Cups

.

See also

• Index of Ecuador-related articles
• Outline of Ecuador

Notes

1. ^ /ˈɛkwədɔːr/ ^ⓘ EK-wə-dor; Spanish pronunciation: [ekwaˈðoɾ] ^ⓘ; Quechua: Ikwayur; Shuar: Ecuador or Ekuatur^[16][17]
2. ^ Spanish: República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: Ikwayur Ripuwlika; Shuar: Ekuatur Nunka^[18][19]

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216. S2CID 143580656
     .

Further reading

• Ades, H. and Graham, M. (2010) The Rough Guide to Ecuador, Rough Guides
• Becker, M. (2008) Indians and Leftists in the Making of Ecuador's Modern Indigenous Movements, Duke University Press Books
• Becker, M. and Clark, A. K. (2007) Highland Indians and the State in Modern Ecuador, University of Pittsburgh Press
• Blakenship, J. (2005) Cañar: A Year in the Highlands of Ecuador, University of Texas Press
• Brown, J. and Smith, J. (2009) Moon Guidebook: Ecuador and the Galápagos Islands, Avalon Travel Publishing
• Crowder, N. (2009) Culture Shock! Ecuador: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette, Marshall Cavendish Corporation
• Gerlach, A. (2003) Indians, Oil, and Politics: A Recent History of Ecuador, SR Books
• Handelsman, M. H. (2008) Culture and Customs of Ecuador, Greenwood
• Hurtado, O. (2010) Portrait of a Nation: Culture and Progress in Ecuador, Madison Books
• O'Connor, E. (2007) Gender, Indian, Nation: The Contradictions of Making Ecuador, 1830–1925, University of Arizona Press
• Pineo, R. (2007) Ecuador and the United States: Useful Strangers, University of Georgia Press
• Roos, W. and Van Renterghem, O. (2000) Ecuador in Focus: A Guide to the People, Politics, and Culture, Latin America Bureau
• Sawyer, S. (2004) Crude Chronicles: Indigenous Politics, Multinational Oil, and Neoliberalism in Ecuador, Duke University Press Books
• Striffler, S. (2001) In the Shadows of State and Capital: The United Fruit Company, Popular Struggle, and Agrarian Restructuring in Ecuador – 1900–1995, Duke University Press Books
• Torre, C. de la and Striffler, S. (2008) The Ecuador Reader: History, Culture, Politics, Duke University Press Books
• Various (2010) Insight Guidebook: Ecuador & Galápagos, Insight Guides
• Various (2009) Lonely Planet Guide: Ecuador & the Galápagos Islands, Lonely Planet
• Whitten, N. E. (2011) Histories of the Present: People and Power in Ecuador, University of Illinois Press
• Whitten, N. E. (2003) Millennial Ecuador: Critical Essays on Cultural Transformations and Social Dynamics, University Of Iowa Press

External links

• President of Ecuador (in Spanish)
• CIA Library Site: Chief of State and Cabinet Members
• Ecuador. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Ecuador at UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Ecuador profile from the BBC News
• Wikimedia Atlas of Ecuador
• Geographic data related to Ecuador at OpenStreetMap

2°00′S 77°30′W / 2.000°S 77.500°W / -2.000; -77.500