Pastoral period
Pastoral rock art is the most common form of Central
The Middle Pastoral Period (5200 cal BCE – 3800 cal BCE) is when most of the Pastoral rock art was developed.
Amid the Late Pastoral Period, animals associated with the modern savanna decreased in appearance on Central Saharan rock art and animals suited for dry environments and animals associated with the modern Sahelian increased in appearance on Central Saharan rock art.[3] At Takarkori rockshelter, between 5000 BP and 4200 BP, Late Pastoral peoples herded goats, seasonally (e.g., winter), and began a millennia-long tradition of creating megalithic monuments, utilized as funerary sites where individuals were buried in stone-covered tumuli that were usually away from areas of dwellings in 5000 BP.[9]
The Final Pastoral Period (1500 BCE – 700 BCE) was a transitory period from nomadic pastoralism toward becoming increasingly sedentary.
Classifications
Compared to painted
Chronology
Critique of overly simplistic and errant views presented in the long chronology is the value shown in the short chronology.[11] Yet, the rather spontaneous development of Central Saharan rock art said to occur in the later 7th millennium BP, which is presented in the short chronology, is its challenge.[11] While there is some evidence from archaeology to support this spontaneous development in 6500 BP, the amount of evidence from archaeology needed to support the short chronology, in providing explanation of the complex cultural developments (e.g., regional diversification, enduring continuity of local pastoral and pottery traditions, rock art) in the Central Sahara, is lacking.[11]
With the exception of a few instances, the common assumption is that Pastoral rock art corresponds with Pastoral Neolithic cultures, which remains largely unsubstantiated.[12] The traditional view is that of Pastoral rock art ending, followed by Horse rock art beginning and ending, and then Camel rock art beginning and ending, yet it is likely more complicated (e.g., cross-regional mixing, overlaps, long rock art traditions, some pastoralists who did not create Pastoral rock art).[12] Nevertheless, though general consensus has yet to be reached regarding correspondence between the start of the five millennia-long tradition of creating Pastoral rock art and what specific time it started in the Early Pastoral Period, the general consensus found among those who use contrasting approaches (e.g., splitter, lumper) is that the start of the Pastoral rock art tradition should be viewed as corresponding with the archaeological cultures of Early Pastoral peoples.[12]
Due to its reliance on evidence of changes caused by windblown sand, which can vary depending on the area of rock that is exposed to it, the common use of patina to discern the age of a particular rock art style, such as engravings, can be viewed as rather undependable.[13] In the case of Pastoral rock art, what may be more dependable is the likelihood that painted cattle, engraved cattle (which compose more than half of all engraved rock art), and pastoral motifs were composed by the same group of people.[13] More work needs to be done to incorporate rock art styles that portray undomesticated animals (e.g., some dating after Pastoral rock art depicting cattle and some which may date before) into the existing chronological and cultural model.[13]
More recently, black/dark patina, abundant in manganese, has been climatologically connected with the Green Sahara, connected with the engraving being performed before the development of the patina, and archaeologically connected with the Early Pastoral Period and before.[14] Gray, light-colored patina, abundant in manganese, has been climatologically connected with the drying of the Green Sahara, connected with the engraving being performed amid the development of the patina, and archaeologically connected with the Middle Pastoral Period.[14] Red patina, abundant in iron, is climatologically connected with a dry Sahara, connected with the engraving being performed after the development of the patina and before/amid mineral buildup, and archaeologically connected with the Late Pastoral Period and Final Pastoral Period.[14] The absence of patina has been climatologically connected with a fully dry Sahara, too new for mineral buildup, and archaeologically connected with the Garamantian period and after.[14]
A
Patina containing an abundant amount of manganese underlie 53% of engraved animal rock art has been found at Wadi al-Ajal, which determines it to be probable that the engraved animal rock art (e.g., elephant, hartebeest, reedbuck, rhino) at Wadi al-Ajal were engraved amid, or even prior to, the Early Pastoral Period and the Middle Pastoral Period.[15] At Wadi al-Ajal, there were ten scattered archaeological sites - nine sites from the Early Pastoral Period and Middle Pastoral Period as well as one site likely from the Pre-Pastoral Period.[15] Numerous engraved Pastoral rock art of animals may reflect an increase in activity (e.g., increased utilization of natural resources) among pastoralists amid the Early Pastoral Period and Middle Pastoral Period.[15]
Amid the Middle Pastoral Period,
Amid the Late Pastoral Period and Final Pastoral Period (3800 BCE – 1000 BCE), out of all of the engraved animal rock art, which included desert-adaptable animals (e.g., Barbary sheep, Ostriches), red-colored patina developed and underlay 33% of the engraved animal rock art at Wadi al-Ajal.[15] Desertification availed new areas to creating Pastoral rock art that were previously unavailable in prior times.[15]
Climate
Early Pastoral Period
From 8000 BP to 7500 BP, the climate of the Central Sahara may have been arid.[6] From 6900 BP to 6400 BP, the climate of the highlands and lowlands of the Central Sahara may have been humid; consequently, from 6600 BP to 6500 BP, the lakes in Edeyen of Murzug and Uan Kasa growing to their largest.[6]
Middle Pastoral Period
The state of the Central Saharan environment amid the Early Pastoral Period and Middle Pastoral Period were favorable.[16] Between the two periods, there was an arid period, which lasted from 7300 cal BP to 6900 cal BP.[16]
Late Pastoral Period
A considerably arid environment may have been present, which also involved wind-caused erosion in rockshelters.
Final Pastoral Period
The environment became increasingly dry and oases began to develop.[4]
Origins of Pastoralists
Pastoral Rock Art
Di Lernia et al. theorized: In 10,000 BP,
Pastoral rock art is thought to portray
Round Head rock art portrays human artforms with additional attributes (e.g., occasionally wielding bows, body designs, masks) and undomesticated animals (e.g., Barbary sheep, antelope, elephants, giraffes); the final period of the Round Head rock art portrayals have been characterized as
Some rock art from the Pastoral period seem to portray Africans with
Pastoralists
The earliest pastoralists, who brought domesticated sheep, goat, and cattle along with them to the Central Sahara, amid the Pastoral Period (8000 BP – 7000 BP), have been characterized as Proto-Berbers.[22]
At
After having dwelled among one another in the Central Sahara, by 4000 BP, some of the hunter-gatherers, who created the Round Head rock art, may have associated with, admixed with, and adapted the culture of incoming cattle pastoralists.[20]
In the Acacus region, at the Uan Muhuggiag rockshelter, there was a child mummy (5405 ± 180 BP) and an adult (7823 ± 95 BP/7550 ± 120 BP).
Origins of Pastoral Animals and Locations of Domestication
Cattle
Near Eastern Introduction of Domesticated Cattle Into Africa
Rather than the domesticating of cattle happening in the region of the Tadrart Acacus, it is considered more likely that domesticated cattle were introduced to the region.[6] Cattle are thought to not have entered Africa independently, but rather, are thought to have been brought into Africa by cattle pastoralists.[25] By the end of the 8th millennium BP, domesticated cattle are thought to have been brought into the Central Sahara.[11] The Central Sahara (e.g., Tin Hanakaten, Tin Torha, Uan Muhuggiag, Uan Tabu) was a major intermediary area for the distribution of domesticated animals from the Eastern Sahara to the Western Sahara.[26]
Based on cattle remains near the Nile dated to 9000 BP and cattle remains near Nabta Playa and Bir Kiseiba reliably dated to 7750 BP, domesticated cattle may have appeared earlier, near the Nile, and then expanded to the western region of the Sahara.[20] Though undomesticated aurochs are shown, via archaeological evidence and rock art, to have dwelled in Northeast Africa, aurochs are thought to have been independently domesticated in India and the Near East.[24] After aurochs were domesticated in the Near East, cattle pastoralists may have migrated, along with domesticated aurochs, through the Nile Valley and, by 8000 BP, through Wadi Howar, into the Central Sahara.[24]
The mitochondrial divergence of undomesticated Indian cattle, European cattle, and African cattle (Bos primigenius) from one another in 25,000 BP is viewed as evidence supporting the conclusion that cattle may have been domesticated in Northeast Africa,[27] particularly, the eastern region of the Sahara,[27][28] between 10,000 BP and 8000 BP.[29] Cattle (Bos) remains may date as early as 9000 BP in Bir Kiseiba and Nabta Playa.[29] While the mitochondrial divergence between Eurasian and African cattle in 25,000 BP can be viewed as supportive evidence for cattle being independently domesticated in Africa, introgression from undomesticated African cattle in Eurasian cattle may provide an alternative interpretation of this evidence.[26]
Independent Domestication of African Cattle In Africa
The time and location for when and where cattle were domesticated in Africa remains to be resolved.[20]
Osypińska (2021) indicates that an "archaeozoological discovery made at Affad turned out to be of great importance for the entire history of cattle on the
Indian humped cattle (Bos indicus) and North African/Middle Eastern taurine cattle (Bos taurus) are commonly assumed to have admixed with one another, resulting in Sanga cattle as their offspring.[32] Rather than accept the common assumption, admixture with taurine and humped cattle is viewed as having likely occurred within the last few hundred years, and Sanga cattle are viewed as having originated from among African cattle within Africa.[32] Regarding possible origin scenarios for Sub-Saharan African Sanga cattle, domesticated taurine cattle were introduced into North Africa, admixed with domesticated African cattle (Bos primigenius opisthonomous), resulting in offspring (the oldest being the Egyptian/Sudanese longhorn, some to all of which are viewed as Sanga cattle), or more likely, domesticated African cattle originated in Africa (including Egyptian longhorn), and became regionally diversified (e.g., taurine cattle in North Africa, zebu cattle in East Africa).[32]
The managing of
In the Western Desert, at the E-75-6 archaeological site, amid 10th millennium cal BP and 9th millennium cal BP, African pastoralists may have managed North African cattle (Bos primigenius) and continually used the watering basin and well and as water source.[33] In the northern region of Sudan, at El Barga, cattle fossils found in a human burial serve as supportive evidence for cattle being in the area.[33]
While this does not negate that it is possible for cattle from the Near East to have migrated into Africa, a greater number of African cattle in the same area share the T1 mitochondrial haplogroup and atypical haplotypes than in other areas, which provides support for Africans independently domesticating African cattle.
Goat
From the Near East, between 6500 BP and 5000 BP, sheep and goats expanded into the Central Sahara.[34]
Sheep
The most early domesticated sheep remnants in
Pastoral Rock Art and Pastoralists
Among thousands of archaeological sites, which usually have several different periods of rock art traditions (e.g., Wild Fauna, Round Head, Pastoral, Horse, Camel) present at a single site and almost 80% of sites that are found in rockshelters, the most common form of Saharan rock art is the engraved and painted Pastoral rock art.[1] Central Saharan cattle herders, such as those of the Acacus region, had a sense of monumentality.[36] Pastoral rock art, which are of latter times, are frequently found covering the Round Head rock art of earlier times.[11] Between 7000 BP and 4000 BP, the Pastoral rock art tradition may have persisted, and, based on excavated evidence and samples of paint from the Tadrart Acacus region, may have reached its pinnacle during the 6th millennium BP.[1] Round Head rock art is distinct from engraved and painted Pastoral rock art.[2] While Pastoral rock art is largely characterized by pastoralists and bow-wielding hunters in scenes of animal husbandry, with various animals (e.g., cattle, sheep, goats, dogs), Round Head rock art may be characterized as being rather celestial.[2] Various kinds of monumental stone structures (e.g., alignments, arms, crescents, heap of stones, keyholes, platforms, rings, standings stones, stone cairns/tumuli) have existed in the Central Sahara, spanning from the Middle Pastoral Period among cattle pastoralists to the Garamantes.[10] Cattle sculptures, which may have served as religious symbols, were also created during the Pastoral Period.[37]
In the late period of the
In 10,000 BP, the
Pastoralism, possibly along with social stratification, and Pastoral rock art, emerged in the Central Sahara between 5200 BCE and 4800 BCE.
By at least 4th millennium BCE, as indicated via the painted rock art of Tassili n’Ajjer, Proto-
After migrating from the Central Sahara, by 4000 BP, the
Early Pastoral Period
In the Tadrart Acacus, the period of the Late Acacus hunter-gatherers was followed by an arid period in 8200 BP, which made way for the period of incoming Early Pastoral peoples.
At Takarkori rockshelter, Early Pastoral peoples utilized fireplaces between 7400 BP and 6400 BP.
Middle Pastoral Period
Amid and shortly after aridification in the Acacus region, between 7300 cal BP and 6900 cal BP, Middle Pastoral peoples and Early Pastoral peoples interacted with one another, resulting in the merging of Middle Pastoral peoples and Early Pastoral peoples and replacing of Early Pastoral peoples with Middle Pastoral peoples.[16]
The Middle Pastoral Period (5200 cal BCE – 3800 cal BCE) is when most of the Pastoral rock art was developed.
At the Uan Muhuggiag rockshelter, the child mummy of Uan Muhuggiag has been radiocarbon dated, via the deepest coal layer where it was found, to 7438 ± 220 BP, and, via the animal hide it was wrapped in, to 5405 ± 180 BP,[48] which has been calibrated to 6250 cal BP.[16] Another date for the animal hide made from the skin of an antelope, which was accompanied by remnants of a grind stone and a necklace made from the eggshell of an ostrich, is 4225 ± 190 BCE.[38]
At Takarkori rockshelter, Middle Pastoral peoples developed a completely cattle (Bos taurus) pastoralist-driven economic system (e.g., pottery, milking) between 6100 BP and 5100 BP.
In 5000 BP, the development of
Late Pastoral Period
Amid the Late Pastoral Period, animals associated with the modern savanna decreased in appearance on Central Saharan rock art and animals suited for dry environments and animals associated with the modern Sahelian increased in appearance on Central Saharan rock art.
Final Pastoral Period
The Final Pastoral Period (1500 BCE – 700 BCE) was a transitory period from nomadic pastoralism toward becoming increasingly sedentary.
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