White people
White (often still referred to as Caucasian) is a racialized classification of people generally used for those of mostly European ancestry. It is also a skin color specifier, although the definition can vary depending on context, nationality, ethnicity and point of view.
Description of populations as "White" in reference to their skin color is occasionally found in Greco-Roman ethnography and other ancient or medieval sources, but these societies did not have any notion of a White race or pan-European identity. The term "White race" or "White people", defined by their
Contemporary anthropologists and other scientists, while recognizing the reality of biological variation between different human populations, regard the concept of a unified, distinguishable "White race" as a social construct with no scientific basis.
Physical descriptions in antiquity
According to anthropologist Nina Jablonski:
In ancient Egypt as a whole, people were not designated by color terms ... Egyptian inscriptions and literature only rarely, for instance, mention the dark skin color of the Kushites of Upper Nubia. We know the Egyptians were not oblivious to skin color, however, because artists paid attention to it in their works of art, to the extent that the pigments at the time permitted.[2]
The
The assignment of
Classicist James H. Dee states "the Greeks do not describe themselves as 'White people'—or as anything else because they had no regular word in their color vocabulary for themselves."
Modern racial hierarchies
The term "White race" or "White people" entered the major
According to Gregory Jay, a professor of English at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee:
Before the age of exploration, group differences were largely based on language, religion, and geography. ... the European had always reacted a bit hysterically to the differences of skin color and facial structure between themselves and the populations encountered in Africa, Asia, and the Americas (see, for example, Shakespeare's dramatization of racial conflict in Othello and The Tempest). Beginning in the 1500s, Europeans began to develop what became known as "scientific racism," the attempt to construct a biological rather than cultural definition of race ... Whiteness, then, emerged as what we now call a "pan-ethnic" category, as a way of merging a variety of European ethnic populations into a single "race" ... .
— Gregory Jay, "Who Invented White People? A Talk on the Occasion of Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, 1998"[22]
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, "East Asian peoples were almost uniformly described as White, never as yellow."
A social category formed by colonialism
A three-part racial scheme in color terms was used in seventeenth-century
In the British colonies in North America and the Caribbean, the designation English or Christian was initially used in contrast to Native Americans or Africans. Early appearances of White race or White people in the Oxford English Dictionary begin in the seventeenth century.[4] Historian Winthrop Jordan reports that, "throughout the [thirteen] colonies the terms Christian, free, English, and white were ... employed indiscriminately" in the seventeenth century as proxies for one another.[29] In 1680, Morgan Godwyn "found it necessary to explain" to English readers that "in Barbados, 'white' was 'the general name for Europeans.'"[30] Several historians report a shift towards greater use of White as a legal category alongside a hardening of restrictions on free or Christian blacks.[31] White remained a more familiar term in the American colonies than in Britain well into the 1700s, according to historian Theodore W. Allen.[30]
Scientific racism
Western studies of
Eighteenth century beginnings
In 1758,
In 1775, the
In the various editions of his On the Natural Variety of Mankind, he categorized humans into four or five races, largely built on Linnaeus' classifications. But while, in 1775, he had grouped into his "first and most important" race "Europe, Asia this side of the Ganges, and all the country situated to the north of the Amoor, together with that part of North America, which is nearest both in position and character of the inhabitants", he somewhat narrows his "Caucasian variety" in the third edition of his text, of 1795: "To this first variety belong the inhabitants of Europe (except the Lapps and the remaining descendants of the Finns) and those of Eastern Asia, as far as the river Obi, the Caspian Sea and the Ganges; and lastly, those of Northern Africa."[35][33][36][37] Blumenbach quotes various other systems by his contemporaries, ranging from two to seven races, authored by the authorities of that time, including, besides Linnæus, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, Christoph Meiners and Immanuel Kant.
In the question of color, he conducts a rather thorough inquiry, considering also factors of
Nineteenth and twentieth century: the "Caucasian race"
Between the mid-nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries,
There was never any scholarly consensus on the delineation between the Caucasian race, including the populations of Europe, and the Mongoloid one, including the populations of East Asia. Thus,
Although modern neo-Nazis often invoke Nazi iconography on behalf of White nationalism, Nazi Germany repudiated the idea of a unified White race, instead promoting Nordicism. In Nazi propaganda, Eastern European Slavs were often referred to as Untermensch (subhuman in English), and the relatively under-developed economic status of Eastern European countries such as Poland and the USSR was attributed to the racial inferiority of their inhabitants.[45] Fascist Italy took the same view, and both of these nations justified their colonial ambitions in Eastern Europe on racist, anti-Slavic grounds.[46] These nations were not alone in their view; during the long nineteenth century and interwar period, there were numerous cases—regardless of the position in the political spectrum of the person—where European ethnic groups and nations labeled or treated other Europeans as members of another, somehow "inferior race". Between the Enlightenment era and interwar period, the racist worldviews fit well into the liberal worldview, and they were almost general among the liberal thinkers and politicians.[47]
Census and social definitions in different regions
Race |
---|
History |
Society |
Race and... |
By location |
Related topics |
Definitions of White have changed over the years, including the official definitions used in many countries, such as the
Country Continent or region |
Total population (%) |
Population |
Year | Ref(s) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Europe | |||||||
Northern Ireland | 96.6% | 1,837,600 | 2021 | [49] | |||
Scotland | 96.0% | 5,084 | 2011 | [50] | |||
Wales | 93.8% | 2,900 | 2021 | [51] | |||
Malta | 89.1% | 462,997 | 2021 | [52] | |||
Ireland | 87.4% | 4,444,145 | 2022 | [53] | |||
England | 81.0% | 45,783,401 | 2021 | [54] | |||
North America | |||||||
Canada
|
69.8% | 25,364 | 2021 | [55][56] | |||
Cuba | 64.1% | 7,200 | 2012 | [57] | |||
United States | 61.6% | 204,300 | 2020 | [58] | |||
Bermuda (UK )
|
30.52% | 19.47 | 2016 | [59] | |||
Puerto Rico (US )
|
17.1% | 2,800 | 2020 | [60] | |||
Nicaragua
|
17.0% | 1,000 | WFB2 | [61] | |||
Dominican Republic | 16.0% | 2,000 | 1960
|
[62] | |||
US Virgin Islands (US) | 15.6% | 16.65 | 2010 | [63] | |||
Mexico | 9.0% to 47.0% | 10.8 or 56.0 | Lizcano3 2010 | [64][65][66] | |||
El Salvador | 12.7% | 700 | 2007 | [67] | |||
Turks and Caicos (UK) | 7.9% | 1.56 | 2001 | [68] | |||
Panama
|
6.7% est. | 28 | 2010 WF2 | [69] | |||
Virgin Islands (UK) | 5.4% | 1.51 | 2010 | [70] | |||
The Bahamas | 5.0% | 16.60 | 2010 | [71] | |||
Anguilla (UK) | 3.2% | 0.43 | 2011 | [72] | |||
Barbados | 2.7% | 6.14 | 2010 | [73] | |||
St. Vincent | 1.4% | 1.48 | 2001 | [74] | |||
Trinidad and Tobago | 0.7% | – | 2011 | [75] | |||
South America | |||||||
Uruguay
|
87.7% | 2,800 | 2011 | [76] | |||
Chile
|
52.7% | 9,100 | Lizcano3 | [64] | |||
Venezuela
|
43.6% | 11,900 | 2011 | [77] | |||
Brazil
|
43.5% | 88,252 | 2022 | [78] | |||
Paraguay
|
20.0% | 1,300 | Lizcano3 | [64] | |||
Ecuador
|
2.2% | TBD | 2022 | [79] | |||
Peru
|
5.9% | 1,300 | 2017
|
[80] | |||
Bolivia
|
3.0% | – | 2014 (Ipsos) | [81] | |||
Australia and Oceania | |||||||
Australia | 76% | 17,500 | 2016 | [82] | |||
New Zealand | 71.76% | 3,370 | 2018 | [83] | |||
New Caledonia (Fr) | 24.1% | 65.49 | 2019 | [84] | |||
Guam (US )
|
7.1% | 11.32 | 2010
|
[85] | |||
Northern Mariana Islands (US) | 2.4% | 1.12 | 2010
|
[86] | |||
Africa | |||||||
South Africa
|
8.9% | 4,500 | 2011
|
[87] | |||
Zimbabwe | 0.22% | 28.73 | 2012 | [88] | |||
^2 CIA The World Factbook. ^3 Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano |
Argentina
).White Argentines are mainly descendants of
By the 1910s, after immigration rates peaked, over 30 percent of the country's population was from outside Argentina, and over half of Buenos Aires' population was foreign-born.[95][96] However, the 1914 National Census revealed that around 80% of the national population were either European immigrants, their children or grandchildren.[97] Among the remaining 20 percent (those descended from the population residing locally before this immigrant wave took shape in the 1870s), around a third were White.[98] European immigration continued to account for over half the nation's population growth during the 1920s and was again significant (albeit in a smaller wave) following World War II.[97] It is estimated that Argentina received over 6 million European immigrants during the period 1857–1940.[99]
Since the 1960s, increasing immigration from bordering countries to the north (especially from
Criticism of the national census states that data has historically been collected using the category of national origin rather than race in Argentina, leading to undercounting
Angola
Australia
From 1788, when the first British colony in Australia was founded, until the early nineteenth century, most immigrants to Australia were English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish convicts. These were augmented by small numbers of free settlers from the British Isles and other European countries. However, until the mid-nineteenth century, there were few restrictions on immigration, although members of ethnic minorities tended to be assimilated into the Anglo-Celtic populations.[citation needed]
People of many nationalities, including many non-White people, emigrated to Australia during the goldrushes of the 1850s. However, the vast majority was still White and the goldrushes inspired the first racist activism and policy, directed mainly at Chinese immigrants.[citation needed]
From the late nineteenth century, the
Although they were not the prime targets of the policy, it was not until after
Australia enumerated its population by race between 1911 and 1966, by racial origin in 1971 and 1976, and by self-declared ancestry alone since 1981, meaning no attempt is now made to classify people according to skin color.[104] As at the 2016 census, it was estimated[by whom?] that around 58% of the Australian population were Anglo-Celtic Australians with 18% being of other European origins, a total of 76% for European ancestries as a whole.[citation needed]
Bahamas
Barbados
Bolivia
Botswana
Brazil
Recent censuses in Brazil are conducted on the basis of self-identification. According to the 2010 Census, they totaled 91,051,646 people and made up 47.73% of the Brazilian population.[105]
As a term, "White" in Brazil is generally applied to people of European descent. The term may also encompass other people, such as Brazilians of West Asian descent, and in some contexts, East Asians. Though Brazilians of East Asian descent are, in other contexts, classified as "Yellow" (amarela).[106] The census shows a trend of fewer Brazilians of a different descent (most likely mixed) identifying as White people as their social status increases.[107][108] Nevertheless, light-skinned Mulattoes and Mestizos with European features were also historically deemed as more closely related to "whiteness" then unmixed Blacks.[107]
Canada
Of the over 36 million Canadians enumerated in 2021 approximately 25 million reported being "White", representing 69.8 percent of the population.[55][56]
In the 1995 Employment Equity Act, "'members of visible minorities' means persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour". In the 2001 Census, persons who selected Chinese, South Asian, African, Filipino, Latin American, Southeast Asian, Arab, West Asian, Middle Eastern, Japanese, or Korean were included in the visible minority population.[109] A separate census question on "cultural or ethnic origin" (question 17) does not refer to skin color.[110]
Chile
Scholarly estimates of the White population in Chile vary dramatically, ranging from 20%[111] to 52%.[64] According to a study by the University of Chile about 30% of the Chilean population is Caucasian,[112] while the 2011 Latinobarómetro survey shows that some 60% of Chileans consider themselves White.[113]
During colonial times in the eighteenth century, an important flux of emigrants from Spain populated Chile, mostly Basques, who vitalized the Chilean economy and rose rapidly in the social hierarchy and became the political elite that still dominates the country.[114] An estimated 1.6 million (10%) to 3.2 million (20%) Chileans have a surname (one or both) of Basque origin.[115] The Basques liked Chile because of its great similarity to their native land: similar geography, cool climate, and the presence of fruits, seafood, and wine.[116]
Chile was not an attractive place for European migrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries simply because it was far from Europe and difficult to reach. Chile experienced a tiny but steady arrival of Spanish,
The original arrival of Spaniards was the most radical change in demographics due to the arrival of Europeans in Chile,[116] since there was never a period of massive immigration, in contrast to neighboring nations such as Argentina and Uruguay.[117] Facts about the amount of immigration do not coincide with certain national chauvinistic discourse, which claims that Chile, like Argentina or Uruguay, would be considered one of the "White" Latin American countries, in contrast to the racial mixture that prevails in the rest of the continent. However, it is undeniable that immigrants have played a major role in Chilean society.[117] Between 1851 and 1924 Chile only received 0.5% of the European immigration flow to Latin America, compared to the 46% received by Argentina, 33% by Brazil, 14% by Cuba, and 4% by Uruguay. This was because most of the migration occurred across the Atlantic before the construction of the Panama Canal. Europeans preferred to stay in countries closer to their homelands instead of taking the long trip through the Straits of Magellan or across the Andes.[116] In 1907, European-born immigrants composed 2.4% of the Chilean population,[118] which fell to 1.8% in 1920,[119] and 1.5% in 1930.[120]
After the failed
Another historically significant immigrant group were Croatian immigrants. The
Colombia
The Colombian government does not carry out official racial censuses, nor does it carry out self-identification racial censuses as is the case in Argentina, so the figures shown are usually based on data from populations considered "non-ethnic", which are those (Whites and Mestizos).[clarification needed] According to the 2018 census, approximately 87.58% of the Colombian population are White or Mestizo.[citation needed]
Many Spanish began their explorations searching for gold, while other Spanish established themselves as leaders of the native social organizations teaching natives the
Between 1540 and 1559, 8.9 percent of the residents of Colombia were of Basque origin. It has been suggested that the present-day incidence of business entrepreneurship in the region of Antioquia is attributable to the Basque immigration and Basque character traits.[135] Few Colombians of distant Basque descent are aware of their Basque ethnic heritage.[135] In Bogota, there is a small colony of thirty to forty families who emigrated as a consequence of the Spanish Civil War or because of different opportunities.[135] Basque priests were the ones who introduced handball into Colombia.[136] Basque immigrants in Colombia were devoted to teaching and public administration.[136] In the first years of the Andean multinational company, Basque sailors navigated as captains and pilots on the majority of the ships until the country was able to train its own crews.[136]
It is estimated that 3% of Colombians have German ancestry, which constitutes approximately 1.5 million and the third largest group of Europeans after the Spanish and Italians in the country.[137] In December 1941 the United States government estimated that there were 4,000 Germans living in Colombia.[138] There were some Nazi agitators in Colombia, such as Barranquilla businessman Emil Prufurt.[138] Colombia invited Germans who were on the U.S. blacklist to leave.[138] SCADTA, a Colombian-German air transport corporation that was established by German expatriates in 1919, was the first commercial airline in the Western Hemisphere.[139]
The Italians arrived on the Colombian coast, and quickly moved towards the expanding agricultural areas. There, some of them achieved success in the commercialization of livestock, agricultural products, and imported goods, which later led to the transfer of their lucrative activities to Barranquilla. Some important buildings were created by Italians in the nineteenth century, like the famous
The first and largest wave of immigration from the Middle East began around 1880 and remained during the first two decades of the twentieth century. They were mainly Maronite Christians from Greater Syria (Syria and Lebanon) and Palestine, fleeing the then colonized Ottoman territories.
Costa Rica
The 2022 census counted a total population of 5,044,197 people.[146] In 2022, the census also recorded ethnic or racial identity for all groups separately for the first time in more than ninety-five years since the 1927 census. Options included indigenous, Black or Afro-descendant, Mulatto, Chinese, Mestizo, white and other on section IV: question 7.[147] White people (including mestizo) make up 94%, 3% are black people, 1% are Amerindians, and 1% are Chinese. White Costa Ricans are mostly of Spanish ancestry,[148] but there are also significant numbers of Costa Ricans descended from British, Italian, German, English, Dutch, French, Irish, Portuguese and Polish families, as well a sizable Jewish (namely Ashkenazi and Sephardic) community.[citation needed]
Cuba
Self-identified as white 1899 - 2012[149][150][151][152] | ||
---|---|---|
Year[153] | Population | Percent |
1899 | 1,067,354 | 66.9 |
1953 | 4,243,956 | 72.8 |
2002 | 7,271,926 | 65.0 |
2012 | 7,160,399 | 64.1 |
White people in Cuba make up 64.1% of the total population according to the 2012 census[154][155] with the majority being of diverse Spanish descent. However, after the mass exodus resulting from the Cuban Revolution in 1959, the number of white Cubans actually residing in Cuba diminished. Today various records claiming the percentage of Whites in Cuba are conflicting and uncertain; some reports (usually coming from Cuba) still report a less, but similar, pre-1959 number of 65% and others (usually from outside observers) report a 40–45%. Despite most White Cubans being of Spanish descent, many others are of French, Portuguese, German, Italian and Russian descent.[156]
During the eighteenth, nineteenth, and early part of the twentieth century, large waves of
In 1953, it was estimated that 72.8% of Cubans were of European ancestry, mainly of Spanish origin, 12.4% of African ancestry, 14.5% of both African and European ancestry (mulattos), and 0.3% of the population was of Chinese and or East Asian descent (officially called "amarilla" or "yellow" in the census). However, after the
The Institute for Cuban and Cuban American Studies at the University of Miami says the present Cuban population is 38% White and 62% Black/Mulatto.[159] The Minority Rights Group International says that "An objective assessment of the situation of Afro-Cubans remains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both pre- and post-revolution. Estimates of the percentage of people of African descent in the Cuban population vary enormously, ranging from 33.9 per cent to 62 per cent".[160][161]
According to the most recent 2012 census, Cuba's population was 11,167,325.[citation needed]
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
In 2013, White Salvadorans were a minority ethnic group in El Salvador, accounting for 12.7% of the country's population. An additional 86.3% of the population were mestizo, having mixed Amerindian and European ancestry.[162]
France
White people in France are a broad racial-based, or skin color-based, social category in French society.
In statistical terms, the French government banned the collection of racial or ethnic information in 1978, and the
White people in France are defined, or discussed, as a racial or social grouping, from a diverse and often conflicting range of political and cultural perspectives; in anti-racism activism in France, from right-wing political dialogue or propaganda, and other sources.[165][166]
Background
Whites in France have been studied with regard the group's historical involvement in
They have been described as a privileged social class within the country, comparatively sheltered from racism and poverty.
The lack of census data collected by the
Use in right-wing politics
Accusations of anti-White racism,[171] suggestions of the displacement of,[165] or lack of representation for,[173] the group, and rhetoric surrounding Whites in France experiencing poverty have been, at times, utilised by various right-wing political elements in the country. University of Lyon's political scientist Angéline Escafré-Dublet has written that "the equivalent to a White backlash in France can be traced through the debate over the purported neglect of the 'poor Whites' in France".[174]
In 2006, French politician Jean-Marie Le Pen suggested there were too many "players of colour" in the France national football team after he suggested that 7 of the 23-player squad were White.[173] In 2020, French politician Nadine Morano stated that French actress Aïssa Maïga, who was born in Senegal, should "go back to Africa" if she "was not happy with seeing so many white people in France".[175]
Guatemala
In 2010, 18.5% of Guatemalans belonged to the White ethnic group, with 41.7% of the population being Mestizo, and 39.8% of the population belonging to the 23
Haiti
Honduras
As of 2013, Hondurans of solely White ancestry are a small minority in Honduras, accounting for 1% of the country's population. An additional 90% of the population is mestizo, having mixed indigenous and European ancestry.[178]
Ivory Coast
Jamaica
Kenya
Mauritius
Mexico
White Mexicans are Mexican citizens of complete or predominant European descent.[180] While the Mexican government does conduct ethnic censuses on which a Mexican has the option of identifying as "White,"[181] the results obtained from these censuses are not published. Instead, Mexico's government publishes the percentage of "light-skinned Mexicans" residing in the country; that percentage was 47%[65] in 2010 and 49% in 2017.[182] Due to its less direct racial undertone, the label "Light-skinned Mexican" has been favored by the government and media outlets over "White Mexican" as the go-to choice to refer to the segment of Mexico's population possessing European physical traits[183] when discussing different ethno-racial dynamics in Mexico's society. Sometimes, nonetheless, "White Mexican" is used.[184][185][186]
Europeans began arriving in Mexico during the
Another ethnic group in Mexico, the Mestizos, is composed of people with varying degrees of European and indigenous ancestry, with some showing a European genetic ancestry higher than 90%.[192] However, the criteria for defining what constitutes a Mestizo varies from study to study, as in Mexico a large number of White people have been historically classified as Mestizos, because after the Mexican Revolution the Mexican government began defining ethnicity on cultural standards (mainly the language spoken) rather than racial ones in an effort to unite all Mexicans under the same racial identity.[64]
Estimates of Mexico's White population differ greatly in both, methodology and percentages given, extra-official sources such as the World Factbook and Encyclopædia Britannica, which use the 1921 census results as the base of their estimations, calculate Mexico's White population as only 9% or between one-tenth to one-fifth
A study performed in hospitals in Mexico City reported that an average of 51.8% of Mexican newborns presented the
Mexico's northern and western regions have the highest percentages of
A number of settlements on which European immigrants have maintained their original culture and language survive to this day and are spread all over Mexican territory; among the most notable groups are the Mennonites who have colonies in states as variated as Chihuahua[205] or Campeche[206] and the town of Chipilo in the state of Puebla, inhabited nearly in its totality by descendants of Italian immigrants that still speak their Venetian-derived dialect.[207]
Namibia
New Zealand
The establishment of British colonies in Australia from 1788 and the boom in whaling and sealing in the Southern Ocean brought many Europeans to the vicinity of New Zealand. Whalers and sealers were often itinerant, and the first real settlers were missionaries and traders in the Bay of Islands area from 1809. Early visitors to New Zealand included whalers, sealers, missionaries, mariners, and merchants, attracted to natural resources in abundance. They came from the Australian colonies, Great Britain and Ireland, Germany (forming the next biggest immigrant group after the British and Irish),[208] France, Portugal, the Netherlands, Denmark, the United States, and Canada.
In the 1860s, the discovery of gold started a gold rush in Otago. By 1860 more than 100,000 British and Irish settlers lived throughout New Zealand. The Otago Association actively recruited settlers from Scotland, creating a definite Scottish influence in that region, while the Canterbury Association recruited settlers from the south of England, creating a definite English influence over that region.[209]
In the 1870s, MP Julius Vogel borrowed millions of pounds from Britain to help fund capital development such as a nationwide rail system, lighthouses, ports, and bridges, and encouraged mass migration from Britain. By 1870 the non-Māori population reached over 250,000.[210] Other smaller groups of settlers came from Germany, Scandinavia, and other parts of Europe as well as from China and India, but British and Irish settlers made up the vast majority and did so for the next 150 years.
Nicaragua
As of 2013, the White ethnic group in Nicaragua accounts for 17% of the country's population. An additional 69% of the population is
Paraguay
Peru
According to the
South Africa
White
The Kingdom of Great Britain captured Cape Town in 1795 during the Napoleonic Wars and permanently acquired South Africa from Amsterdam in 1814. The first British immigrants numbered about 4,000 and were introduced in 1820. They represented groups from England, Ireland, Scotland, or Wales and were typically more literate than the Dutch.[216] The discovery of diamonds and gold led to a greater influx of English speakers who were able to develop the mining industry with capital unavailable to Afrikaners.[216] They have been joined in more subsequent decades by former colonials from elsewhere, such as Zambia and Kenya, and poorer British nationals looking to escape famine at home.[216]
Both Afrikaners and English have been politically dominant in South Africa during the past; due to the controversial racial order under apartheid, the nation's predominantly Afrikaner government became a target of condemnation by other African states and the site of considerable dissension between 1948 and 1991.[214]
There were 4.6 million Whites in South Africa in 2011,[217][218] down from an all-time high of 5.2 million in 1995 following a wave of emigration commencing in the late twentieth century.[219] However, many returned over time.[220]
Trinidad and Tobago
United Kingdom and Ireland
Historical White identities
Before the Industrial Revolutions in Europe whiteness may have been associated with social status. Aristocrats may have had less exposure to the sun and therefore a pale complexion may have been associated with status and wealth.
Just as race reified whiteness in America, Africa, and Asia, capitalism without social welfare reified whiteness with regard to social class in nineteenth-century Britain and Ireland; this social distinction of whiteness became, over time, associated with racial differences.[228] For example, George Sims in his 1883 book How the poor live wrote of "a dark continent that is within easy reach of the General Post Office ... the wild races who inhabit it will, I trust, gain public sympathy as easily as [other] savage tribes".[228]
Modern and official use
From the early 1700s, Britain received a small-scale immigration of black people due to the
Today the
United States
United States Census 1790–2020[240][241] | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Census Year | White population | % of the US | |||
1790 | 3,172,006 | 80.7 | |||
1800 | 4,306,446 | 81.1 | |||
1850 | 19,553,068 | 84.3 | |||
1900 | 66,809,196 | 87.9 | |||
1940 | 118,214,870 | 89.8 (highest) | |||
1950 | 134,942,028 | 89.5 | |||
1980 | 188,371,622 | 83.1 | |||
2000 | 211,460,626 | 75.1[242] | |||
2010 | 223,553,265 | 72.4[243][244] | |||
2020 | 204,277,273 | 61.6[244] (lowest) |
The cultural boundaries separating
During American history, the process of officially being defined as White by law often came about in court disputes over the pursuit of citizenship. The Immigration Act of 1790 offered naturalization only to "any alien, being a free white person". In at least 52 cases, people denied the status of White by immigration officials sued in court for status as White people. By 1923, courts had vindicated a "common-knowledge" standard, concluding that "scientific evidence" was incoherent. Legal scholar John Tehranian says that this was a "performance-based" standard, relating to religious practices, education, intermarriage, and a community's role in the United States.[248]
In 1923, the
In the early twenty-first century, the relationship between some ethnic groups and whiteness remains complex. In particular, some
The current
White Americans made up nearly 90% of the population in 1950.
Black author Rich Benjamin, in his book, Searching for Whitopia: An Improbable Journey to the Heart of White America, reveals how racial divides and White decline, both real and perceived, shape democratic and economic urgencies in America.[260] The book examines how White flight, and the fear of White decline, affects the country's political debates and policy-making, including housing, lifestyle, social psychology, gun control,[261] and community. Benjamin says that such issues as fiscal policy or immigration or "Best Place to Live" lists, which might be considered race-neutral, are also defined by racial anxiety over perceived White decline.
One-drop rule
The "
As a result of centuries of having children with White people, the majority of African Americans have some European admixture,[263] and many people long accepted as White also have some African ancestry.[264][265] Among the most notable examples of the latter is President Barack Obama, who is believed to have been descended from an early African enslaved in America, recorded as "John Punch", through his mother's apparently White line.[266]
In the twenty-first century, writer and editor
Since the late twentieth century, genetic testing has provided many Americans, both those who identify as White and those who identify as black, with more nuanced and complex information about their genetic backgrounds.[270]
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico Spanish and US census 1812–2010 | |||
---|---|---|---|
Year | Population | Percent | Ref(s) |
1812 | 85,662 | 46.8% | [271] |
1899 | 589,426 | 61.8% | [271] |
2000 | 3,064,862 | 80.5% | [272] |
2010 |
2,825,100 | 75.8% | [273] |
Contrary to most other Caribbean places, Puerto Rico gradually became predominantly populated by European immigrants.[271] Puerto Ricans of Spanish, Italian (primarily via Corsica) and French descent comprise the majority. (See: Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico).
In 1899, one year after the United States acquired the island, 61.8% or 589,426 people self-identified as White.[271] One hundred years later (2000), the total increased to 80.5% (3,064,862);[272] not because there has been an influx of Whites toward the island (or an exodus of non-White people), but a change of race conceptions, mainly because of Puerto Rican elites to portray Puerto Rico's image as the "White island of the Antilles", partly as a response to scientific racism.[274]
Hundreds are from
Between 1960 and 1990, the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or color.
Uruguay
Venezuela
According to the official Venezuelan census, the term "White" involves external issues such as light skin, shape, and color of hair and eyes, among other factors. Though the meaning and usage of the term "White" has varied in different ways depending on the time period and area, leaving its precise definition as somewhat confusing. The 2011 Venezuelan Census states that "White" in Venezuela is used to describe Venezuelans of European origin.
Spaniards were introduced into Venezuela during the colonial period. Most of them were from Andalusia, Galicia, Basque Country and from the Canary Islands. Until the last years of World War II, a large part of the European immigrants to Venezuela came from the Canary Islands, and its cultural impact was significant, influencing the development of Castilian in the country, its gastronomy, and customs. With the beginning of oil operations during the first decades of the twentieth century, citizens and companies from the United States, United Kingdom, and Netherlands established themselves in Venezuela. Later, in the middle of the century, there was a new wave of originating immigrants from Spain (mainly from Galicia, Andalucia and the Basque Country), Italy (mainly from southern Italy and Venice) and Portugal (from Madeira) and new immigrants from Germany, France, England, Croatia, Netherlands, and other European countries, among others, animated simultaneously by the program of immigration and colonization implanted by the government.[citation needed]
Zambia
Zimbabwe
See also
- Caucasoid
- Criollo people
- Demographics of Europe
- Ethnic groups in Europe
- Ethnic groups in West Asia
- European diaspora
- White demographic decline
- White genocide conspiracy theory
- White supremacy
References
- ^ Nirenberg, David (2009). "Was there race before modernity? The example of 'Jewish' blood in late medieval Spain" (PDF). In Eliav-Feldon, Miriam; Isaac, Benjamin H.; Ziegler, Joseph (eds.). The Origins of Racism in the West. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 232–264. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
On both sides of the chronological divide between the modern and the pre-modern (wherever it may lie), there is today a remarkable consensus that the earlier vocabularies of difference are innocent of race.
- ISBN 978-0-520-95377-2.
- ^ "chapter VI. The gate of Teka-hra". Book of Gates. Translated by E. A. Wallis Budge. 1905. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016.
The first are RETH, the second are AAMU, the third are NEHESU, and the fourth are THEMEHU. The RETH are Egyptians, the AAMU are dwellers in the deserts to the east and north-east of Egypt, the NEHESU are the Cushites, and the THEMEHU are the fair-skinned Libyans.
- ^ a b c James H. Dee, "Black Odysseus, White Caesar: When Did 'White People' Become 'White'?" The Classical Journal, Vol. 99, No. 2. (December 2003 – January 2004), pp. 162 ff.
- ^ Michael Witzel, "Rgvedic History" in: The Indo-Aryans of South Asia (1995): "while it would be easy to assume reference to skin color, this would go against the spirit of the hymns: for Vedic poets, black always signifies evil, and any other meaning would be secondary in these contexts."
- OCLC 1055877879.
- OCLC 1039168694.
- OCLC 1000991167.
- OCLC 248925851.
- OCLC 1026663126.
- ISBN 978-0-393-04934-3.
- ^ Herodotus: Histories, 4.108.
- ^ Herodotus: Histories, 2.104.2.
- ^ Herodotus: Histories, 2.17.
- ISBN 0-8020-8508-3, p. 90.
- OCLC 1004814805.
- ^ Painter 2016, p. 10.
- JSTOR 3298065.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8223-8623-0.
- ISBN 978-0-8147-9892-8.
- ^ Bonnett 2000
- ^ Gregory Jay. "Who Invented White People? A Talk on the Occasion of Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, 1998". Archived from the original on 2 May 2007. Retrieved 19 December 2006.
- ^ Keevak, Michael (2011). Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking. Princeton University Press. pp. 26–27.
- ^ Keevak, Michael (2011). Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking. Princeton University Press. p. 2.
- ISBN 978-0-8223-8623-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8223-8623-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8122-3895-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-60732-019-7. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
- ^ Jordan, Winthrop (1974). White Over Black: American Attitudes Towards the Negro. p. 97.
- ^ a b Allen, Theodore (1994). The Invention of the White Race. Vol. 2. New York: Verso. p. 351.
- ISBN 978-0-86091-660-4. Archived from the originalon 7 November 2011. Retrieved 24 December 2006.
- ISSN 1728-4457.
- ^ a b Sarah A. Tishkoff and Kenneth K. Kidd (2004): "Implications of biography of human populations for 'race' and medicine" (Archived 14 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine), Nature Genetics.
- ^ Painter, Nell Irvin (2003). "Why White People are Called Caucasian?" (PDF). Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Gilder Lehrman Center International Conference at Yale University. Collective Degradation: Slavery and the Construction of Race – November 7-8, 2003 – Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. p. 20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 9 October 2006.
- ^ Johann Friedrich Blumenbach: The Anthropological Treatises. Longman Green, London 1865, pp. 99, 265 ff.
- ISBN 978-0-393-04934-3.
- ISBN 978-0-87220-458-4.
- ^ Johann Friedrich Blumenbach: The Anthropological Treatises. Longman Green, London 1865, p. 107.
- ^ Brian Regal: Human Evolution. A guide to the debates. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara/CA 2004, p. 72. Also see Johann Friedrich Blumenbach: The Institutions of physiology, translated by John Elliotson. Bensley, London 1817.
- ISBN 978-0-7591-0133-3. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
- ^ Baum (2006), p. 120, gives the range 1840 to 1935.
- ISBN 978-1-4129-1006-4– via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-1-4411-6199-4– via Google Books.
- ^ "The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information". [Cambridge] University Press. 30 May 2018 – via Google Books.
- ^ Bendersky, Joseph W. 2007 A concise history of Nazi Germany Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield. pp.161-62.
- ^ Benito Mussolini, Richard Washburn Child, Max Ascoli, Richard Lamb. My rise and fall. Da Capo Press, 1998. pp. 105–106.
- ISBN 9780230371330.
- ISBN 978-0-7872-8145-8.
- ^ "Main statistics for Northern Ireland - Statistical bulletin - Ethnic group" (PDF). Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 22 September 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
- ^ "Ethnicity: Census 2011". 3 August 2021. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
- ^ "Ethnic group, England and Wales: Census 2021. How ethnic composition varied across England and Wales". 29 November 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2022.
- ^ "Census of Population and Housing 2021: Final Report: Population, migration and other social characteristics (Volume 1)". nso.gov.mt. 16 February 2023. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
- ^ "Migration and Diversity - CSO - Central Statistics Office". CSO. 30 May 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
- ^ "Ethnic group, England and Wales: Census 2021. How ethnic composition varied across England and Wales". 29 November 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2022.
- ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (26 October 2022). "Visible minority and population group by generation status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
- ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (26 October 2022). "The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
In 2021, just over 25 million people reported being White in the census, representing close to 70% of the total Canadian population. The vast majority reported being White only, while 2.4% also reported one or more other racialized groups.
- ^ "El Color de la Piel Según el Censo de Población y Viviendas de 2012" (PDF). February 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2022.
- ^ "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010 Census Briefs". US Census Bureau. March 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 May 2011.
- ^ "Bermuda 2016 Census" (PDF). Bermuda Department of Statistics. December 2016. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
- ^ "2020 Census Illuminates Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Country". Census.gov. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
- ^ "Nicaragua: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 26 November 2007.
- ^ Fourth National Census of Population, 1960.
- ^ "2010 U.S. Virgin Islands Summary File". American FactFinder. U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
- ^ a b c d e Lizcano Fernández, Francisco (August 2005). "Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI" [Ethnic Composition of the Three Cultural Areas of the American Continent at the Beginning of the XXI Century]. Convergencia (in Spanish). 12 (38): 185–232.
- ^ a b c "21 de Marzo Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial" pag.7 Archived 25 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine, CONAPRED, Mexico, 21 March. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.
- ^ "Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico" Archived 8 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine, "CONAPRED", Mexico DF, June 2011. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.
- ^ "El Salvador: Censos de Población 2007" [El Salvador: Population Census 2007] (PDF) (in Spanish). digestyc.gob.sv. 2008. p. 13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
- ^ Turks and Caicos 2001 Census Archived 5 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine (Page: 22)
- ^ "Panama: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 26 November 2007.
- ^ The BVI Beacon "Portrait of a population: 2010 Census published" p. 57, 20 November 2014
- ^ Bahamas 2010 census TOTAL POPULATION BY SEX, AGE GROUP AND RACIAL GROUP "In 1722 when the first official census of The Bahamas was taken, 74% of the population was white and 26% black. Three centuries later, and according to the 99% response rate obtained from the race question on the 2010 Census questionnaire, 91% of the population identified themselves as being black, five percent (5%) white and two percent (2%) of a mixed race (black and white) and (1%) other races and (1%) not stated." (Page: 10 and 82)
- ^ Anguilla Population and Housing Census (AP&HC) 2011 Archived 21 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Who are we? – Ethnic Composition and Religious Affiliation.
- ^ Barbados – 2010 Population and Housing Census Archived 18 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine Table 02.03: Population by Sex, Age Group and Ethnic Origin (Page: 51-54)
- ^ Population, Demographic Characteristics Archived 11 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine Population by Ethnic Groups (Page: 16-17) 1.4% white (608 "Portuguese" and 870 other "white").
- ^ Trinidad and Tobago 2011 Census Archived 19 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Ethnic Composition: "Caucasian 0.59%, Portuguese 0.06%", Total: 0.65% (Page: 15)
- ^ a b "Extended National Household Survey, 2006: Ancestry" (PDF) (in Spanish). National Institute of Statistics.
- ^ Resultado Basico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011, (p. 14).
- ^ "Censo 2022 - Panorama".
- ^ "Censo de Población y Vivienda 2022". 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
- ^ a b "Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico" (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. p. 214. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
- ^ El Dia Encusta (Ipsos) 2014: "INE: el 69% de los bolivianos no pertenece a ningún pueblo indígena. Estudio. Según la encuesta Ipsos, el 25% se autodefine aymara, el 11% quechua, el 3% blanco y el 1% guaraní y afroboliviano. Los indígenas aseguran que están visibilizados."
- ^ "Leading for change" (PDF). humanrights.gov.au. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
- ^ "2018 Census totals by topic – national highlights". Stats NZ. 23 September 2019. Archived from the original on 23 September 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
- ^ "Population Structure of Communities". isee.nc. Archived from the original on 13 November 2019. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
- ^ Guam (Territory of the US) CIA Factbook – based on the 2010 official Census statistics
- ^ The Northern Mariana Islands Archived 11 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine 2010 Census
- ISBN 978-0-621-41388-5. Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 May 2015.
- ^ ZIMBABWE Archived 10 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine – POPULATION CENSUS 2012 – retrieved November 2017
- ^ Schweimler, Daniel (12 February 2007). "Argentina's last Jewish cowboys". BBC News. Retrieved 6 January 2010.
- ^ "CIA – The World Factbook – Argentina". Archived from the original on 13 May 2009.
- ^ Enrique Oteiza and Susana Novick hold that «la Argentina desde el siglo XIX, al igual que Australia, Canadá o Estados Unidos, se convierte en un país de inmigración, entendiendo por esto una sociedad que ha sido conformada por un fenómeno inmigratorio masivo, a partir de una población local muy pequeña.» Iigg.fsoc.uba.ar Archived 31 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ El antropólogo brasileño Darcy Ribeiro incluye a la Argentina dentro de los «pueblos trasplantados» de América, junto con Uruguay, Canadá y Estados Unidos (Ribeiro, Darcy. Las Américas y la Civilización (1985). Buenos Aires:EUDEBA, pp. 449 ss.)
- ^ El historiador argentino José Luis Romero define a la Argentina como un «país aluvial» (Romero, José Luis. «Indicación sobre la situación de las masas en Argentina (1951)», en La experiencia Argentina y otros ensayos, Buenos Aires: Universidad de Belgrano, 1980, p. 64)
- ^ Federaciones Regionales Archived 2 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine feditalia.org.ar
- ^ Dinámica migratoria: coyuntura y estructura en la Argentina de fines del XX Archived 1 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Alhim.revues.org (3 November 2004).
- ^ "Buenosaires.gov.ar". Archived from the original on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
- ^ a b c Rock, David. Argentina: 1516–1982. University of California Press, 1987.
- ^ Levene, Ricardo. History of Argentina. University of North Carolina Press, 1937.
- ^ Yale immigration study Archived 16 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Yale.edu.
- ^ Racial Discrimination in Argentina Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Academic.udayton.edu.
- ^ Ackerman, Ruthie (27 November 2005). "Blacks in Argentina – officially a few, but maybe a million". The San Francisco Chronicle.
- ^ Immigration Restriction Act 1901 Archived 1 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Foundingdocs.gov.au.
- ^ Stephen Castles, "The Australian Model of Immigration and Multiculturalism: Is It Applicable to Europe?," International Migration Review, Vol. 26, No. 2, Special Issue: The New Europe and International Migration. (Summer, 1992), pp. 549–67.
- ^ "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and the Census After the 1967 Referendum". Abs.gov.au. 5 July 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
- ^ "Censo Demográfi co 2010 Características da população e dos domicílios Resultados do universo" (PDF). 8 November 2011. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
- ISBN 0-691-11866-3,
The Japanese were sometimes considered white. Lesser (1999) cites Federal Deputy Acylino de Ledo in a speech before the House who stated, "The Japanese colonists are even whiter than the Portuguese."
- ^ a b Gregory Rodriguez, "Brazil Separates Into Black and White Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine," LA Times, 3 September 2006. Note that the figures belie the title.
- ^ Rodriguez, Gregory. (3 September 2006) Brazil Separates Into a World of Black and White | The New America Foundation Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Newamerica.net.
- ^ Human Resources and Social Development Canada, 2001 Employment Equity Data Report [dead link]
- ^ Census 2001: 2B (Long Form)
- ^ "Chile". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
Chile's ethnic makeup is largely a product of Spanish colonization. About three fourths of Chileans are mestizo, a mixture of European and Amerindian ancestries. One fifth of Chileans are of white European (mainly Spanish) descent.
- ^ "5.2.6. Estructura racial". University of Chile (in Spanish). Retrieved 10 February 2013.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Online Data Analysis". Latinobarómetro. Corporación Latinobarómetro. 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
- ^ "Chile". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
...Basque families who migrated to Chile in the 18th century vitalized the economy and joined the old Castilian aristocracy to become the political elite that still dominates the country.
- ^ Madariaga, Ainara (19 November 2008). "Presentación del libro Santiago de Chile". Departmento de Salud. Eusko Jaurlaritza – Gobierno Vasco. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
- ^ a b c Elorza, Waldo Ayarza (1995). ...de los Vascos, Oñati y Los Elorza. pp. 59, 65, 66, 68.
- ^ ISBN 978-956-282-174-2. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
- ^ "Memoria Presidentada al Supremo Gobierno por la Comsion Central del Censo" [Report Presented to the Supreme Government by the Central Census Commission] (PDF). Default (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
- ^ "Censo de Población de la República de Chile" [Population Census of the Republic of Chile] (PDF). Default (in Spanish). 15 December 1920. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
- ^ "Resultados del X Censo de la Poblacion efectuado el 27 de Noviembre de 1930 y Estadisticas Comparativas con Censos Anteriores" [Results of the X Population Census carried out on November 27, 1930 and Comparative Statistics with Previous Censuses] (PDF). Default (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016.
- ISBN 978-84-923901-0-6. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
- ^ Pérez Rosales, Vicente (1860). Recuerdos del Pasado. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Andrés Bello. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
- ^ "Embajada de Chile en Alemania". echile.de. Archived from the original on 5 August 2009.
- ^ "Kuwi.europa-uni.de" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 November 2012.
- ^ "Hrvatskiimigracije.es.tl – Diaspora Croata". hrvatskimigracije.es.tl. Archived from the original on 9 May 2016.
- Hrvatska matica iseljenika. Archived from the originalon 4 June 2012.
- ^ "Hrvatski". Hrvatski.cl. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
- ^ "Historia de Chile, Británicos y Anglosajones en Chile durante el siglo XIX". Retrieved 26 April 2009.
- ^ a b "ar.vg – Desde Argentina para el mundo". Archived from the original on 16 October 2015.
- ^ "Domain im Kundenauftrag registriert". schweizergruppe.sv.tc. Archived from the original on 25 September 2009.
- ^ "5% de los chilenos tiene origen frances". Archived from the original on 12 April 2008.
- ^ "Italiani nel Mondo: diaspora italiana in cifre" (PDF) (in Italian). Migranti Torino. 30 April 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2008. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ a b "Colombia – History Background". education.stateuniversity.com. Retrieved 7 August 2019.
- ^ "Colombia: Background". Minority Rights Group. 2 November 2023. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
- ^ a b c Amerikanuak: Basques in the New World by William A. Douglass, Jon Bilbao, p. 167
- ^ a b c Possible paradises: Basque emigration to Latin America by José Manuel Azcona Pastor, p. 203
- ^ Jane M. Rausch. Germans in the History of Colombia from Colonial Times to the Present – via Ebook | Scribd.
- ^ a b c Latin America during World War II by Thomas M. Leonard, John F. Bratzel, P.117
- ^ "SCADTA Joins the Fight". stampnotes.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- ^ "Pietro Cantini". epdlp.com. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
- ^ "::Presidencia de la República de Colombia::". 9 March 2012. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
- ^ Jiménez, Camilo Torres (7 October 2021). "Educación a la Italiana en Bogotá". itBogotá (in Spanish). Retrieved 17 May 2022.
- ^ "Convenzioni Inps estere, Fedi sollecita Nuova Zelanda ma anche Cile e Filippine". 9 February 2018. Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
- ^ a b c d Diego Andrés Rosselli Cock (15 December 2005). "La comunidad musulmana de Maicao (Colombia)". Webislam (in Spanish). Retrieved 17 January 2018.
- ^ a b c d e "Continuación - En la tierra de las oportunidades: Los sirio-libaneses en Colombia" [Continuation - In the land of opportunities: The Syrian-Lebanese in Colombia]. Boletín Cultural y Bibliográfico [Cultural and Bibliographic Bulletin] (in Spanish). XXIX (29). 1992. Archived from the original on 25 October 2006.
- ^ "National Institute of Statistics and Census of Costa Rica". Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos de Costa Rica, or INEC. 2022. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
- ^ "INEC Cuestionario Censo 2022" (PDF). INEC. 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2023.
- Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Microsoft. 2007. Archived from the originalon 29 May 2008. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
- ^ "Report on the Census of Cuba, 1899". sc.edu.
- ISBN 978-0-521-86787-0.
- ^ "Official 2012 Census" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 June 2014.
- ^ a b "El Color de la Piel según el Censo de Población y Viviendas" (PDF). Cuba Statistics and Information. pp. 8, 17–18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
- ^ Official census year
- ^ "2012 Cuban Census". One.cu. 28 April 2006. Archived from the original on 26 February 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
- ^ "Censo en Cuba concluye que la población decrece, envejece y se vuelve cada vez más mestiza". latercera.com. Grupo Copesa. 8 November 2013. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
- ^ "Etat des propriétés rurales appartenant à des Français dans l'île de Cuba". (from Cuban Genealogy Center)
- ^ "In Cuba, Finding a Tiny Corner of Jewish Life". The New York Times. 4 February 2007. Retrieved 19 November 2008.
- ^ "Report on the Census of Cuba, Census of Cuba 1899". Digital.tcl.sc.edu. p. 81. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
- ^ "A barrier for Cuba's blacks – New attitudes on once-taboo race questions emerge with a fledgling black movement". Miami Herald. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013.
- ^ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Cuba: Afro-Cubans". Refworld. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
- ^ "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Cuba: Overview". Archived from the original on 10 May 2011.
- ^ "El Salvador". The World Factbook. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
- ^ Renata Birkenbuel (10 January 2020). "French Court May Fine Little-Known Rapper For Alleged Racist Song, 'Hang White People,' And Accompanying Music Video". Newsweek.
incitement to violence does not stop just because the intended victim is white
- ^ "Hang White People: Rapper Nick Conrad fined over YouTube song". BBC. 19 March 2019.
- ^ a b Emma Pettit (5 August 2019). "As White Supremacists Try to Remake History, Scholars Seek to Preserve the Record". The Chronicle of Higher Education.
Camus argues that white people in France, and in Europe in general, are being replaced by Muslim immigrants, in what he calls "genocide by substitution."
- ^ James McAuley (27 September 2018). "A black French rapper sang about hanging 'the whites.' He may now be prosecuted". The Washington Post.
"White people in France are not in danger," Diallo said, referencing the issue of police brutality. In 2016, for instance, a 24-year-old black man named Adama Traore was trampled and killed by police in the town of Beaumont-sur-Oise
- African continent.
- banlieues as a kind of caricature, such as that presented by the right-wing populist Marine Le Penduring her political campaigns.
- ^ Rokhaya Diallo (10 October 2019). "French whiteness is in crisis". Al Jazeera.
- ISBN 978-0-520-29426-4.
- ^ a b Crystal Marie Fleming (2020). "How to Be Less Stupid About Race in France" (PDF). Vol. 12. H-France Salon. p. 3.
Finally, as I also argue in How to Be Less Stupid About Race, those of us engaged in the work of anti-racism in and outside of the academy, must continually disrupt efforts to establish a false equivalence between whites and racialized minorities. While many whites in France refuse to acknowledge institutionalized racism and white supremacy, there is widespread belief in the specter of "anti-white racism,"
- ISBN 978-0-8070-5077-4.
- ^ a b Dominic Fifield (30 June 2006). "We are Frenchmen says Thuram, as Le Pen bemoans number of black players". The Guardian.
- ^ Angéline Escafré-Dublet (2019). "The whiteness of cultural boundaries in France". Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power. Vol. 26. Taylor & Francis.
- ^ Julia Webster Ayuso (2 July 2020). "The thin, white lie: challenging the 'French women' stereotype". The Guardian.
- ^ "Caracterización estadística República de Guatemala 2012" (PDF). INE. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-8263-3881-5– via Google Books.
- ^ "The World Factbook". cia.gov. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
- ^ "Retrato de la familia Fagoaga-Arozqueta". electronic magazine Imágenes of the Institute of Aesthetic Research of the National Autonomous University of Mexico.
- ^ a b "Resultados del Modulo de Movilidad Social Intergeneracional" [Results of the Intergenerational Social Mobility Module] (PDF). INEGI (in Spanish). 16 June 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 July 2018. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
- ^ a b "Visión INEGI 2021 Dr. Julio Santaella Castell", INEGI, 3 July 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.
- ^ "Documento Informativo Sobre Discriminación Racial en México" [Informative Document on Racial Discrimination in Mexico] (PDF). CONAPRED (in Spanish). Mexico. 21 March 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
- ^ "Por estas razones el color de piel determina las oportunidades de los mexicanos" Archived 22 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Huffington post, 26 July 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.
- ^ "Ser Blanco", El Universal, 6 July 2017, Retrieved on 19 June 2018.
- ^ Solís, Arturo (7 August 2018). "Comprobado con datos: en México te va mejor si eres blanco" [Proven with data: in Mexico you are better off if you are white]. Forbes México (in Mexican Spanish). Retrieved 4 November 2018.
- ISBN 9789681613402. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
- ^ a b San Miguel, G (November 2000). "Ser mestizo en la nueva España a fines del siglo XVIII: Acatzingo, 1792" [To be 'mestizo' in New Spain at the end of the XVIII th century. Acatzingo, 1792]. Cuadernos de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales. Universidad Nacional de Jujuy (in Spanish) (13): 325–342.
- ^ ISBN 9786073143646. Retrieved 23 February 2018.
- ISBN 9789682301063. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
- ^ "Household Mobility and Persistence in Guadalajara, Mexico: 1811–1842, page 62", fsu org, 8 December 2016. Retrieved on 9 December 2018.
- PMID 18369456.
Large differences in the variation of individual admixture estimates were seen across populations, with the variance in Native American ancestry between individuals ranging from 0.005 in Quetalmahue to 0.07 in Mexico City (Figure 4, Figure S1, and Table S2), an observation consistent with previous studies...
- ^ "Mexico | History, Geography, Facts, & Points of Interest". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
- PMID 21537803.
- S2CID 145295212.
- PMID 25254375.
- ^ Magaña, Mario; Valerio, Julia; Mateo, Adriana; Magaña–Lozano, Mario (April 2005). "Alteraciones cutáneas del neonato en dos grupos de población de México" [Skin lesions two cohorts of newborns in Mexico City]. Boletín médico del Hospital Infantil de México (in Spanish). 62 (2).
- ISBN 978-0-7817-2076-2. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ a b "About Mongolian Spot". tokyo-med.ac.jp. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
- ^ "Congenital Dermal Melanocytosis (Mongolian Spot): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology". EMedicine.medscape.com. 7 January 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
- ISBN 978-1-4612-2614-7. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ "Tienen manchas mongólicas 50% de bebés", El Universal, January 2012. Retrieved on 3 July 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-674-49706-1. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
- ^ Cuéllar Moreno, Raúl (12 December 2004). "Coahuila y sus Hombres / Los indios bárbaros del norte". Elsiglodetorreon.com (in Spanish).
- ^ Avila, Oscar (22 November 2008). "Mexico's insular Mennonites under siege, overlooked: The Tribune's Oscar Avila reports on Mexico's insular and targeted sect". McClatche-Tribune Business News. Washington. p. 8.
- ^ "Menonitas que huyeron de Chihuahua ahora alimentan Asia desde Campeche", El Financiero, 1 March 2018. Retrieved on 8 December 2018.
- ^ Montagner Anguiano, Eduardo. "El dialecto véneto de Chipilo" [The Venician dialect of Chipilo]. Orbis Latinus (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
- ^ Germans: First Arrivals Archived 21 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine (from the Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand)
- ^ Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "4. – History of immigration – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". teara.govt.nz.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "5. – History of immigration – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". teara.govt.nz.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Nicaragua". The World Factbook. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
- ^ Eddy Kuhl Inmigración centro-europea a Matagalpa, Nicaragua Archived 4 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Consultado, 5 December 2014.
- ^ Revista Vinculado Nicaragua: historia de inmigrantes. De dónde eran y por qué emigraron Retrieved, 5 December 2014.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-620-14537-4.
- ^ Fryxell, Cole. To Be Born a Nation. pp. 9, 327.
- ^ a b c d Kaplan, Irving. Area Handbook for the Republic of South Africa. pp. 120–166.
- ISBN 978-0-520-04547-7.
- ^ Mafika (11 August 2017). "South Africa's population". Brand South Africa. Archived from the original on 21 November 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
- ^ Million whites leave SA – study, fin24.com, 24 September 2006
- ^ "Why white South Africans are coming home". BBC News. 3 May 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
- ^ Kruszelnicki, Karl (March 2001), News in Science: Skin Colour 1
- ^ Bonnett 2000, p. 32
- ISBN 0-8047-0561-5.
- ^ Thomas Jones. "Lhuyd, Edward (1660–1709), botanist, geologist, antiquary and philologist". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales. Retrieved 1 March 2019.
- ISBN 978-0-521-88005-3.
- ISBN 0-14-014581-8.
- ^ "Who were the Celts? ... Rhagor". Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales website. Amgueddfa Cymru– National Museum Wales. 4 May 2007. Archived from the original on 17 September 2009. Retrieved 14 October 2009.
- ^ a b Bonnett 2000, p. 31
- ^ a b "Short History of Immigration". BBC News. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ "Culture and Ethnicity Differences in Liverpool – Chinese Community". Chambré Hardman Trust. Archived from the original on 24 July 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ Vargas-Silva, Carlos (10 April 2014). "Migration Flows of A8 and other EU Migrants to and from the UK". Migration Observatory, University of Oxford. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ "Ethnic group statistics: A guide for the collection and classification of ethnicity data" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. 2003. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
- ^ Kissoon, Priya.Asylum Seekers: National Problem or National Solution. 2005. 7 November 2006.
- ^ a b c 2011 Census: Ethnic group, local authorities in England and Wales, accessed 13 June 2014.
- ^ Table 2 – Ethnic groups, Scotland, 2001 and 2011 Scotlands Census published 30 September 2013 Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 13 June 2014.
- ^ "2011 Census – Key Statistics for Northern Ireland". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 11 January 2017.
- ^ "Table DC2206NI: National identity (classification 1) by ethnic group". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
- ^ "2011 Census: Key Results on Population, Ethnicity, Identity, Language, Religion, Health, Housing and Accommodation in Scotland – Release 2A" (PDF). National Records for Scotland. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2013.
- ^ "NISRA 2011 Census: Ethnic Group: Accessed 3 June 2013".[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b Table 1. United States – Race and Hispanic Origin: 1790 to 1990 (pdf). Archived 18 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1) 100-Percent Data Geographic Area: United States Archived 12 February 2020 at archive.today. Factfinder.census.gov.
- ^ The White Population: 2000, Census 2000 Brief C2010BR-05., U.S. Census Bureau, September 2011.
- ^ a b The White Population: 2010, Census 2010 Brief C2KBR/01-4, U.S. Census Bureau, August 2001.
- ^ a b Census 2020, retrieved 22 January 2023.
- ^ Roediger, Wages of Whiteness, 186; Tony Horwitz, Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War (New York, 1998).
- ^ "The "Becoming White Thesis" Revisited". The Journal of Public and Professional Sociology. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
- ^ "Sorry, but the Irish were always 'white' (and so were Italians, Jews and so on)". The Washington Post. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
- ^ ProQuest 198550989.
- ISBN 978-0-8143-4000-4.
She had barely reached the front porch when the friend's mother realized that her daughter's playmate was a Finn. Helmi was turned away immediately, and the daughter of the house was forbidden to associate with 'that Mongolian'. John Wargelin, a pastor of the Evangelical Lutheran Church and a former president of Suomi College, also tells how, when he was a child in Crystal Falls some years earlier, he and his friends were ridiculed and stoned on their way to school. 'Because of our strange language,' he says, 'we were considered an alien race who had no right to settle in this country.'
- ^ Eric Dregni, Vikings in the Attic: In search of Nordic America, p. 176.
- ^ a b United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, Certificate From The Circuit Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, No. 202. Argued 11, 12 January 1923. —Decided 19 February 1923, United States Reports, v. 261, The Supreme Court, October Term, 1922, 204–215.
- ^ Wang, Hansi Lo (29 January 2018). "No Middle Eastern Or North African Category On 2020 Census, Bureau Says". NPR. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ^ Frank W Sweet, Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule, Backintyme (3 July 2013), p. 50.
- ^ Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook, U.S. Department of Justice. Federal Bureau of Investigation, p. 97 (2004) Archived 3 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 1-59033-970-3
- ^ Jeffrey S. Passel and D'Vera Cohn: U.S. Population Projections: 2005–2050. Archived 3 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine Pew Research Center, 11 February 2008.
- ^ . p. 42. 18 September 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
- ^ Scott Hadly, "Hidden African Ancestry Redux", DNA USA* Archived 22 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine, 23andMe, 4 March 2014.
- hdl:1811/4532.
- ^ NPR. "What Is A 'Whitopia' – And What Might It Mean To Live There?". NPR. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ^ Benjamin, Rich (14 April 2018). ""Gun Control and The Politics of White Paranoia"". The New Yorker. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ^ One drop of blood. People.vcu.edu (24 July 1994).
- PMID 20080753.
- S2CID 7877572. Archived from the original(PDF) on 15 April 2012.
- ^ Frank W Sweet (2004). "Afro-European Genetic Admixture in the United States: Essays on the Color Line and the One-Drop Rule". Archived from the original on 21 February 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
- ^ Goldstein, Bonnie (30 July 2012). "Obama descended from slave ancestor". The Washington Post. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
- ^ Debra J. Dickerson: The End of Blackness. Returning the Souls of Black Folk to Their Rightful Owners. Anchor Books, New York and Toronto 2005.
- ^ Mariah Carey: 'Not another White girl trying to sing Black.'. Findarticles.com.
- ^ Larry King interview with Mariah Carey. Transcripts.cnn.com (19 December 2002).
- ^ Cf. Jim Wooten, "Race Reversal Man Lives as 'Black' for 50 Years – Then Finds Out He's Probably Not", ABC News (2004).
- ^ a b c d "Report on the Census of Porto Rico, 1899" (PDF). Census.gov. 20 July 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2015. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
- ^ a b "Racial composition data for Puerto Rico: 2000 Census" (PDF). Topuertorico.org. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
- ISBN 978-1-107-37920-6.
- ^ How Puerto Rico Became White—University of Wisconsin-Madison Archived 7 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. (PDF).
- ^ "Home". Center for Demography and Ecology.
- ^ Representation of racial identity among Island Puerto Ricans. Mona.uwi.edu.
- ^ "What You Need to Know About Puerto Rico's Black History | PushBlack Now". Archived from the original on 29 July 2019. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
- ^ Uruguay (07/08). State.gov (2 April 2012).
- ^ CIA – The World Factbook – Uruguay. Cia.gov.
- ^ Uruguay – Population. Countrystudies.us.
- ISBN 978-0-7566-7309-3– via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-0-8263-4401-4– via Google Books.
- ^ "Resultado Básico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011 (Mayo 2014)" (PDF). Ine.gov.ve. p. 65. Retrieved 19 June 2022.
- ^ "Resultado Básico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011 (Mayo 2014)" (PDF). Ine.gov.ve. p. 29. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
- ^ Ine.gob.ve Venezuelan population by 30 June 2014 is 30,206,2307 according to the National Institute of Statistics
- ^ Godinho, Neide Maria de Oliveira (2008). O impacto das migrações na constituição genética de populações latino-americanas [The impact of migration on the genetic makeup of Latin American populations] (Thesis) (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
Bibliography
- Allen, Theodore, The Invention of the White Race, 2 vols. Verso, London 1994.
- Baum, Bruce David, The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race: A Political History of Racial Identity. NYU Press, New York and London 2006, ISBN 978-0-8147-9892-8.
- Bonnett, Alastair (2000), White Identities: Historical and International Perspectives, Harlow: Pearson, ISBN 9780582356276
- Brodkin, Karen, How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says About Race in America, Rutgers, 1999, ISBN 0-8135-2590-X.
- Coon, Carleton Stevens (1939). The Races of Europe. New York: The Macmillan Company.
- Foley, Neil, The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997)
- Gossett, Thomas F., Race: The History of an Idea in America, New ed. (New York: Oxford University, 1997)
- Guglielmo, Thomas A., White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890–1945, 2003, ISBN 0-19-515543-2
- Hannaford, Ivan, Race: The History of an Idea in the West (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1996)
- Ignatiev, Noel, How the Irish Became White, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0-415-91825-1.
- Jackson, F. L. C. (2004). Book chapter: Human genetic variation and health: new assessment approaches based on ethnogenetic layering at the . Retrieved 29 December 2006.
- Jacobson, Matthew Frye, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race, Harvard, 1999, ISBN 0-674-95191-3.
- Oppenheimer, Stephen (2006). The Origins of the British: A Genetic Detective Story. Constable and Robinson, London. ISBN 978-1-84529-158-7.
- Painter, Nell Irvin (2010). OCLC 317919383.
- Rosenberg, NA; Mahajan, S; Ramachandran, S; Zhao, C; PMID 16355252.
- Rosenberg, NA; S2CID 8127224.
- Segal, Daniel A (2002). "Review of Racial Situations: Class Predicaments of Whiteness in Detroit". .
- Smedley, Audrey, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview, 2nd ed. (Boulder: Westview, 1999).
- Tang, Hua., Tom Quertermous, Beatriz Rodriguez, Sharon L. R. Kardia, Xiaofeng Zhu, Andrew Brown, James S. Pankow, Michael A. Province, Steven C. Hunt, Eric Boerwinkle, Nicholas J. Schork, and Neil J. Risch (2005) Genetic Structure, Self-Identified Race/Ethnicity, and Confounding in Case-Control Association Studies Am. J. Hum. Genet. 76:268–75.
- Wang, Sijia; Ray, Nicolas; Rojas, Winston; Parra, Maria V.; Bedoya, Gabriel; Gallo, Carla; Poletti, Giovanni; Mazzotti, Guido; Hill, Kim (21 March 2008). "Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos". PLOS Genetics. 4 (3): e1000037. PMID 18369456.
Further reading
- Battalora, Jacqueline M. (2021). Birth of a White Nation: The Invention of White People and Its Relevance Today (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. OCLC 1227818161.
External links
- Quotations related to White people at Wikiquote
- The dictionary definition of Wikisaurus:White person at Wiktionary
- Media related to White (human racial classification) at Wikimedia Commons