Paul Goodman

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Paul Goodman
Portrait of a man with unkempt hair with a sweater over a shirt and tie
Goodman, 1969
Born(1911-09-09)September 9, 1911
New York City, U.S.
DiedAugust 2, 1972(1972-08-02) (aged 60)
North Stratford, New Hampshire, U.S.
Alma materCity College of New York (AB)
University of Chicago (PhD)
Occupations
  • Writer
  • teacher
Years active1941–1972
Known forSocial criticism, fiction
Notable workGrowing Up Absurd, Communitas, Gestalt Therapy

Paul Goodman (September 9, 1911 – August 2, 1972) was an American writer and

man of letters, his works often addressed a common theme of the individual citizen's duties in the larger society, and the responsibility to exercise autonomy
, act creatively, and realize one's own human nature.

Born to a Jewish family in New York City, Goodman was raised by his aunts and sister and attended

psychoanalytic
sessions through the 1950s while continuing to write prolifically.

His 1960 book of social criticism,

1960s counterculture and the free school movement
. Despite being the foremost American intellectual of non-Marxist radicalism in his time, his celebrity did not endure far beyond his life. Goodman is remembered for his utopian proposals and principled belief in human potential.

Life

Goodman was born in New York City on September 9, 1911, to Augusta and Barnette Goodman.

Townsend Harris Hall High School and graduated atop his class in 1927.[5] He started at City College of New York the same year, where he majored in philosophy, was influenced by philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen, and found both lifelong friends and his intellectual social circle].[1] Goodman came to identify with "community anarchism" since reading Peter Kropotkin as an undergraduate, and kept the affiliation throughout his life.[6] He graduated with a bachelor's degree in 1931, early in the Great Depression.[1]

As an aspiring writer, Goodman wrote and published poems, essays, stories, and a play while living with his sister Alice, who supported him.

bisexual.[7]

Homesick

libertarian journals of New York's Why? Group and Dwight Macdonald's Politics.[10][13] Goodman's collected anarchist essays from this period, "The May Pamphlet", undergird the libertarian social criticism he would pursue for the rest of his life.[10]

Gestalt therapy

Goodman in the late 1940s

Aside from anarchism, the late 1940s marked Goodman's expansion into psychoanalytic therapy and urban planning.

New York bohemia and he began to participate in psychoanalytic therapy[13] with Alexander Lowen.[16] Through contact with Wilhelm Reich, he began a self-psychoanalysis.[7] Around the same time, Goodman and his brother, the architect Percival, wrote Communitas (1947). It argued that rural and urban living had not been functionally integrated and became known as a major work of urban planning following Goodman's eventual celebrity.[17]

groups, and leading classes at the Gestalt Therapy Institutes.[18]

During this psychoanalytic period, Goodman continued to consider himself foremost an artist and wrote prolifically even as his lack of wider recognition weathered his resolve.[7] Before starting with Gestalt therapy, Goodman published the novel State of Nature, the book of anarchist and aesthetic essays Art and Social Nature, and the academic monograph Kafka's Prayer. He spent 1948 and 1949 writing in New York and published The Break-Up of Our Camp, a short story collection,[13] followed by two novels: the 1950 The Dead of Spring and the 1951 Parents' Day.[13] He returned to his writing and therapy practice in New York City in 1951[13] and received his Ph.D. in 1954 from the University of Chicago, whose press published his dissertation as The Structure of Literature the same year.[10] The Living Theatre staged his theatrical work.[13]

Mid-decade, Goodman entered a life crisis when publishers did not want his epic novel The Empire City, a new lay therapist licensing law excluded Goodman, and his daughter contracted polio. He embarked to Europe in 1958 where, through reflections on American social ills and respect for Swiss patriotism, Goodman became zealously concerned with improving America. He read the founding fathers and resolved to write patriotic social criticism that would appeal to his fellow citizens rather than criticize from the sidelines.[19] Throughout the late 1950s, Goodman continued to publish in journals including Commentary, Dissent, Liberation (for which he became an unofficial editor[20]), and The Kenyon Review. The Empire City was published in 1959.[13] His work had brought little money or fame up to this point.[20] It was a low point of his life that would soon change dramatically.[21]

Social criticism

Goodman, c. 1959

Goodman's 1960 study of alienated youth in America, Growing Up Absurd, established his importance as a mainstream cultural theorist and pillar of leftist thought during the counterculture.[4] Released to moderate acclaim, it became the major book by which 1960s American youth understood themselves.[21] The book of social criticism assured the young that they were right to feel disaffected about growing up into a society without meaningful community, spirit, sex, or work.[22] He proposed alternatives in topics across the humanist spectrum from family, school, and work, through media, political activism, psychotherapy, quality of life, racial justice, and religion. In contrast to contemporaneous mores, Goodman praised traditional, simple values, such as honor, faith, and vocation, and the humanist history of art and heroes as providing hope for a more meaningful society.[22]

Goodman's frank vindications and outsider credentials resonated with the young. Throughout the sixties, Goodman would direct his work towards them

Berkeley Free Speech Movement, that would take up his political message.[26][27] As an early ally, he had a particular affinity for the Berkeley movement, which he identified as anarchist in character.[27] Goodman became known both as the movement's philosopher[28] and as "the philosopher of the New Left".[3]

While he continued to write for "

sketch stories, and previous articles.[29] He produced a collection of critical broadcasts he had given in Canada as Like a Conquered Province.[29] His books from this period influenced the free university and free school movements.[30] On the intellectual speaking circuit, Goodman was in high demand.[31]

Goodman taught in a variety of academic institutions. He was the Washington

FBI before his accidental mountaineering death in 1967,[34] which launched Goodman into a prolonged depression.[29]

Little Prayers & Finite Experience.[35] His health worsened due to a heart condition, and Goodman died of a heart attack at his farm in North Stratford, New Hampshire on August 2, 1972, at the age of 60.[36] His in-progress works (Little Prayers and Collected Poems) were published posthumously.[29]

Literature

Main articles: Fiction of Paul Goodman, Poetry of Paul Goodman, and Stage works of Paul Goodman

Though he was prolific across many literary forms and topical categories,[4][37] as a humanist, he thought of his writing as serving one common subject—"the organism and the environment"—and one common, pragmatic aim: that the writing should effect a change.[38][4] Indeed, Goodman's poetry, fiction, drama, literary criticism, urban planning, psychological, cultural, and educational theory addressed the theme of the individual citizen's duties in the larger society, especially the responsibility to exercise free action and creativity.[4] While his fiction and poetry was noted in his time, following Growing Up Absurd's success, he diverted his attention from literature and spent his final decade pursuing the social and cultural criticism that forms the basis of his legacy.[4]

As an avant-garde litterateur, Goodman's work was frequently experimental.[39]

Goodman's prose has, at times, been commonly criticized for its sloppiness or impenetrability.[40] In a survey of Goodman's writings, literary critic Kingsley Widmer described characteristic traits of poor organization, pedantry, and overassertion.[41] Dwight Macdonald said that Goodman's lack of self-editing hampered and left his many "valuable ideas" undeveloped. "It was a credit to him," Macdonald wrote, "that he could make such an impact without taking pains with his writing."[42] George Orwell's classic essay on poor writing, Politics and the English Language, notably rebukes an example of Goodman's rhapsodic, jargon-heavy psychoanalytic prose.[43]

Thought and influence

Goodman believed that humans were inherently creative, communal, and loving, except when societal institutions alienate individuals from their natural selves, such as making them suppress their impulses to serve the institution.

the human condition and who creates not as a visual artist but by discharging his duties as a citizen. Goodman's wide interests reflected a concept he believed, acted on, and titled one of his books—The Society I Live in Is Mine—that everything is everyone's business.[47] Goodman was prolific in sharing specific ideas for improving society to match his aims,[48] and actively advocated for them in frequent lectures, letters, op-eds, and media appearances.[49]

Goodman's intellectual development followed three phases. His experience in marginal subcommunities, small anarchist publications, and bohemian New York City through the 1940s formed his core, radical principles, such as decentralization and pacifism.[50] His first transformation was in psychological theory, as Goodman moved past the theories of Wilhelm Reich to develop Gestalt therapy with Fritz Perls.[51] His second transformation opened his approach to social criticism.[50] He resolved to write positively, patriotically, and accessibly about reform for a larger audience rather than simply resisting conformity and "drawing the line" between himself and societal pressures. This approach was foundational to building the New Left.[51]

Politics and social thought

External audio
audio icon Goodman's 1966 Massey Lecture on a decent society, useful technology, rural reconstruction, and American democracy

Goodman was most famous as a political thinker and social critic.[3] Following his ascent with Growing Up Absurd (1960), his books spoke to young radicals, whom he encouraged to reclaim Thomas Jefferson's radical democracy as their anarchist birthright.[3] Goodman's anarchist politics of the forties had an afterlife influence in the politics of the sixties' New Left.[20] His World War II-era essays on the draft, moral law, civic duty, and resistance against violence were re-purposed for youth grappling with the Vietnam War.[20] Even as American activism grew increasingly violent in the late 1960s, Goodman retained hope that a new populism, almost religious in nature, would bring about a consensus to live more humanely.[34] His political beliefs shifted little over his life,[35] though his message as a social critic had been fueled by his pre-1960 experiences as a Gestalt therapist and dissatisfaction with his role as an artist.[52]

As a decentralist, Goodman was skeptical of power and believed that human fallibility required power to be deconcentrated to reduce its harm.

classical republican ideology, such as improvised, local political decision-making and principles like honor and craftsmanship.[56]

He defined political action as any novel individual initiative (e.g., policy, enterprise, idea) without wide acceptance. Civil liberty, to Goodman, was less about freedom from coercive institutions, as commonly articulated in anarchist politics, and more about freedom to initiate within a community, as is necessary for the community's continued evolution. He believed individual initiative—human ardor and animal drives—and the everyday conflict it creates to be the foundation of communities and a quality to be promoted.[57] Love and the creative rivalry of fraternity, wrote Goodman, is what spurs the individual initiative to do what none could do alone.[58]

Goodman followed in the tradition of

American frontier culture.[60] He lionized American radicals who championed such values. Goodman was interested in radicalism native to the United States, such as populism and Randolph Bourne's anarcho-pacifism, and distanced himself from Marxism and European radicalism.[56]

Goodman is associated with the

Living Theater.[39] Goodman's role as a New York Intellectual cultural figure was satirized alongside his coterie in Delmore Schwartz's The World Is a Wedding[66] and namechecked in Woody Allen's Annie Hall.[67][68]

Despite early interest in the civil rights movement, Goodman was not as involved with its youth activists.[69]

Psychology

Further information: Gestalt therapy

Goodman's radicalism was based in psychological theory, his views on which evolved throughout his life. He first adopted radical Freudianism based in fixed human instincts and the politics of Wilhelm Reich. Goodman believed that natural human instinct (akin to Freud's

id) served to help humans resist alienation, advertising, propaganda, and will to conform.[70] He moved away from Reichian individualistic id psychology towards a view of the nonconforming self integrated with society. Several factors precipitated this change. First, Reich, a Marxist, criticized Goodman's anarchist interpretation of his work. Second, as a follower of Aristotle, belief in a soul pursuing its intrinsic telos fit Goodman's idea of socialization better than the Freudian conflict model. Third, as a follower of Kant, Goodman believed in the self as a synthesized combination of internal human nature and the external world. As he developed these thoughts,[71] Goodman met Fritz Perls in 1946.[72] The pair together challenged Reich and developed the theory of Gestalt therapy atop traits of Reich's radical Freudianism.[71]

Gestalt therapy emphasizes the living present over the past and conscious activity over the unconsciousness of dreams. The therapy is based in finding and confronting unresolved issues in one's habitual behavior and social environment to become a truer, more self-aware version of oneself.[73] It encourages clients to embrace spontaneity and active engagement in their present lives.[74] Unlike the silent Freudian analyst, Goodman played an active, confrontational role as therapist. He believed his role was less to cure sickness than to adjust clients to their realities in accordance with their own desires by revealing their blocked potential. The therapist, to Goodman, should act as a "fellow citizen" with a responsibility to reflect the shared, societal sources of these blockages. These themes, of present engagement and of duty to identify shared ills, provided a theory of human nature and community that became the political basis of Goodman's New Left vision and subsequent career in social criticism.[75] Goodman's collective therapy sessions functioned as mutual criticism on par with Oneida Community communal self-improvement meetings.[52]

Education

External videos
video icon Goodman discusses the role of public schools with William F. Buckley Jr. on Firing Line, 1966

Goodman's thoughts on education came from his interest in progressive education and his experience with the Berkeley Free Speech Movement and free university movement.[76]

Goodman invokes "human nature" as multifaceted and unearthed by new culture, institutions, and proposals. He offers no common definition of "human nature" and suggests that no common definition is needed even when claiming that some action is "against human nature".[77] Goodman contends that humans are animals with tendencies and that a "human nature" forms between the human and an environment he deems suitable: a continually reinvented "free" society with a culture developed from and for the search for human powers.[78] When denied this uninhibited growth, human nature is shackled, culture purged, and education impossible, regardless of the physical institution of schooling.[78]

To Goodman, education aims to form a common humanity and, in turn, create a "worthwhile" world.[79] He figured that "natural" human development has similar aims,[80] which is to say that education and "growing up" are identical.[79] "Mis-education", in comparison, has less to do with education or growing up, and is rather a brainwashing process of inculcating a singular worldview that discounts personal experience and feelings, with fearfulness and insecurity towards other worldviews.[81] As outlined in Growing Up Absurd, a dearth of "worthwhile opportunities" in a society precludes both education and growing up.[79] Goodman contended that a lack of community, patriotism, and honor stunts the normal development of human nature and leads to "resigned or fatalistic" youth. This resignation leads youth to "role play" the qualities expected of them.[82]

Goodman's books on education extol the medieval university and advocated for alternative institutions of instruction.[30] He advocates for replacing compulsory schooling with various forms of education more specific to individual interests, including the choice to not attend any school. He argues that the busyness of American high schools and extracurricular activities preclude students from developing their individual interests, and that students should spend years away from schooling before working towards a liberal arts college degree. Goodman believes in dismantling large educational institutions to create small college federations.[83] Goodman saw himself as continuing the work started by John Dewey.[84]

His works on American school social criticism were among the first in a 1960s body of literature that became known as the romantic critics of education.[85] Critics of public schools borrowed his ideas for years after the 1960 publication of Growing Up Absurd, and Goodman's ideas on education reverberated for decades.[86]

Personal life

While Goodman anchored himself to larger traditions—characterized by some as a

the Enlightenment", and a man of letters[44]—he also considered himself an American patriot,[87] with fond affection for "our beautiful libertarian, pluralist and populist experiment".[6] He valued what he called the provincial virtues of the country's national character, such as dutifulness, frugality, honesty, prudence, and self-reliance.[3] He also valued curiosity, lust, and willingness to break rules for self-evident good.[2]

Both of Goodman's marriages were common law;[88] neither was state-officiated.[7] Goodman was married to Virginia Miller between 1938 and 1943. Their daughter, Susan (1939), was born in Chicago.[7][1] Between 1945 and his death, Goodman was married to Sally Duchsten. Their son, Mathew Ready, was born in 1946.[13] They lived below the poverty line on her salary as a secretary, supplemented by Goodman's sporadic teaching assignments.[7] With the proceeds from Growing Up Absurd (1960), his wife left her job[20] and Goodman bought a farmhouse outside of North Stratford, New Hampshire, which they used as an occasional home.[13] His third child, Daisy, was born in 1963.[29] Towards the end of his life, despite the wealth that resulted from his fame, his family lived an unadorned life in an apartment on the Upper West Side of New York City.[6]

Throughout his life, Goodman lost jobs for reasons related to his sexuality.[10] By the time he was in Chicago and married, Goodman was an active bisexual who cruised bars and parks for young men.[7] He was fired from his teaching position there for not taking his cruising off-campus.[7] He was dismissed from the Partisan Review,[7] the progressive boarding school Manumit, and Black Mountain College for reasons related to his sexuality.[13]

Goodman was known for his paradoxical identity and contrarian stances.

gay rights movements or coalitions whose collective power diminished individual autonomy.[90] He loved to shock[91] and his aggressive, cunning argumentative style tended towards polemics and explaining both how his interlocutor was completely wrong and from which basics they should begin anew.[92] In his life, Goodman's professed egalitarianism and humanism sometimes clashed with his personal pretensions, intellectual arrogance, and "impatient imperviousness".[93] While admirable that Goodman stuck to his unfashionable conviction, Irving Howe wrote, Goodman also had an air of "asphyxiating self-righteousness".[94] Goodman's unmannered physical presence was a core piece of his presentation and idiosyncratic celebrity as a social gadfly,[35] partly since Goodman himself championed a lack of separation between public and private lives.[95] Dwight Macdonald said that Goodman did not have close relationships with his intellectual equals and was more personable with his younger admirers and disciples.[42]

Legacy

Goodman, c. 1964

In his time, Goodman was the foremost American intellectual within non-Marxist, Western radicalism, but he did not fit neatly into categories within the intellectual community.

masterwork.[99]

Writing on Goodman's death, Susan Sontag described his intellect as underappreciated[100] and his literary voice as the most "convincing, genuine, [and] singular" since D. H. Lawrence's.[101] She lamented how "Goodman was always taken for granted even by his admirers", praised his literary breadth, and predicted that his poetry would eventually find widespread appreciation.[102] Sontag called Goodman the "most important American writer" of her last twenty years.[102] Literary critic Adam Kirsch later wrote that this was an eccentric opinion both for the time and 2012.[103] Author Kerry Howley, panning Goodman's prose at the time of his 2010 PM Press republications, decried Sontag's and others' defense of Goodman, writing that "rarely in history has such a long list of luminaries come together to apologize for a single body of work".[104]

Some of Goodman's ideas have been assimilated into mainstream thought: local community autonomy and decentralization, better balance between rural and urban life, morality-led technological advances, break-up of regimented schooling, art in mass media, and a culture less focused on a wasteful standard of living.[105] Over time, the idea of "the system" entered common language and ceased to be a rallying cry.[106] Goodman bridged the 1950s era of mass conformity and repression into the 1960s era of youth counterculture in his encouragement of dissent.[107] His systemic societal critique was adopted by 1960s New Left radicals,[108] and his Growing Up Absurd changed American public dialogue to focus "on the discontents of the young and the lack of humane values in much of our technocracy".[109] Goodman influenced many of the late 1960s critics of education, including George Dennison, John Holt, Ivan Illich, and Everett Reimer.[110]

His influence never took hold in the wider public.

pederastic.[113]

Harvard University's Houghton Library acquired Goodman's papers in 1989.[114] Though Goodman was known for his social criticism in his life, his literary executor Taylor Stoehr wrote in the 1990s that future generations would likely appreciate Goodman foremost for his poetry and fiction, which are also the works for which he wished to be known.[46] Writing years later, Stoehr thought that the poems, some stories, and The Empire City would have the most future currency. Though Stoehr considered Goodman's social commentary just "as fresh in the nineties as ... in the sixties", everything but Communitas and Growing Up Absurd had gone out of print.[35] As of the 2010s, Goodman's creative works had little enduring readership.[113]

Written works

Main article: Paul Goodman bibliography

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Widmer 1980, p. 13.
  2. ^ a b c d Stoehr 1994b, p. 510.
  3. ^ a b c d e Stoehr 1994c, p. 21.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g Smith 2001, p. 178.
  5. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, p. 272.
  6. ^ a b c d Kostelanetz 1969, p. 277.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Stoehr 1994b, p. 511.
  8. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, p. 274.
  9. ^ Smith 2001, pp. 178–179.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i Smith 2001, p. 179.
  11. ISBN 978-3-8452-9027-0
    .
  12. ^ Smith 2001, p. 179. As a student of McKeon's, Goodman is considered part of the Chicago School of literary criticism.[11]
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Widmer 1980, p. 14.
  14. ^ Mattson 2002, p. 106.
  15. ^ Smith 2001, pp. 179–180.
  16. ^ a b Kostelanetz 1969, p. 273.
  17. ^ Smith 2001, p. 180.
  18. ^ Stoehr 1994b, pp. 511–512.
  19. ^ Mattson 2002, p. 112.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h Stoehr 1994b, p. 512.
  21. ^ a b Kostelanetz 1969, p. 275.
  22. ^ a b c Stoehr 1994b, p. 509.
  23. ^ a b Kostelanetz 1969, p. 287.
  24. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, p. 283.
  25. ^ Stoehr 1994a, p. 260.
  26. ^ Mattson 2002, p. 117.
  27. ^ a b Stoehr 1994b, pp. 512–513.
  28. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, p. 270.
  29. ^ a b c d e f Widmer 1980, p. 15.
  30. ^ a b c d e f Stoehr 1994b, p. 513.
  31. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, pp. 275–276.
  32. ^ Widmer 1980, pp. 14–15.
  33. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, p. 276.
  34. ^ a b c Stoehr 1994b, p. 514.
  35. ^ a b c d e f g Stoehr 1994b, p. 515.
  36. ^ "Paul Goodman, Author, Reformer, Iconoclast, Dies". The New York Times. August 4, 1972. p. 34. Retrieved October 18, 2023.
  37. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, pp. 270–271.
  38. ^ a b Kostelanetz 1969, p. 271.
  39. ^ a b c Mattson 2002, p. 105.
  40. ^ a b
    • Howley 2010: "Out of concern less for Goodman's reputation than for the future of American letters—bad prose is catching—I cannot recommend cracking a single spine from among these works, which include plodding, bafflingly structured essays, tin-eared poetry, and didactic plays."
    • Rogoff 1997, p. 136: "Goodman's work, often unpolished and uneven in quality", "while others pronounced him as unreadable or worse"
    • Kostelanetz 1969, p. 282: "[Goodman's] prose, in particular, is sloppy, if not occasionally impenetrable"
    • Widmer 1965, p. 176: "neither Goodman nor Mailer write well, and often they write very badly: ... Goodman's grossly synthetic language and sloppy dissociations of sensibility"
  41. ^ Widmer 1980, p. 26.
  42. ^
    ISBN 978-0-691-03412-6
    .
  43. ^ Stoehr 1994a, pp. 74–75.
  44. ^ a b Stoehr 1994c, pp. 21–22.
  45. ^ Pachter 1973, p. 60.
  46. ^ a b Stoehr 1994c, p. 22.
  47. ISSN 0042-6180
    .
  48. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, p. 279.
  49. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, p. 282.
  50. ^ a b Mattson 2002, p. 107.
  51. ^ a b Mattson 2002, pp. 107–108.
  52. ^ a b Mattson 2002, p. 110.
  53. ^ Widmer 1980, p. 49.
  54. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, p. 278.
  55. ^ a b Mattson 2002, p. 100.
  56. ^ a b Mattson 2002, p. 99.
  57. ^ King 1972, pp. 87–88.
  58. ^ Antliff 2017, p. 145.
  59. ^ Mattson 2002, pp. 97–98.
  60. ^ Mattson 2002, p. 98.
  61. ^ Howe 1970, p. 228.
  62. ^ Podhoretz 1967.
  63. ^ a b Widmer 1980, p. 24.
  64. ISBN 978-0-8147-4077-4
    .
  65. ^ Mattson 2002, p. 101.
  66. ISBN 978-1-135-45607-8
    .
  67. ISBN 978-1-86189-338-3
    .
  68. ISBN 978-0-85170-580-4
    .
  69. ^ Stoehr 1990, p. 491.
  70. ^ Mattson 2002, pp. 102–104.
  71. ^ a b Mattson 2002, p. 108.
  72. ^ Stoehr 1994a, pp. 40–42.
  73. ^ Mattson 2002, pp. 108–109.
  74. ^ Mattson 2002, p. 109.
  75. ^ Mattson 2002, pp. 109–110.
  76. ^ Mattson 2002, p. 121.
  77. ^ Boyer 1970, p. 41.
  78. ^ a b Boyer 1970, p. 54.
  79. ^ a b c Boyer 1970, p. 39.
  80. ^ Boyer 1970, p. 37.
  81. ^ Boyer 1970, pp. 37–38.
  82. ^ Boyer 1970, p. 52.
  83. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, p. 280.
  84. ^ Boyer 1970, p. 40.
  85. ISSN 0013-1946
    .
  86. ISSN 0028-7806. Archived
    from the original on March 7, 2016. Retrieved July 19, 2017.
  87. ^ Blake 2012, pp. 22, 28.
  88. ^ Widmer 1980, p. 13, 14.
  89. ^ a b
    • Rogoff 1997, p. 129: "Goodman was a man of enormous paradoxes"
    • Caserio 2000: "characteristically antithesis-laden" ... "Goodman's antinomic thought is expressed in his double political stance"
  90. ^ Caserio 2000.
  91. ISBN 9781453522356
    .
  92. ^ Roszak 1969, p. 180.
  93. ^ Kostelanetz 1969, p. 286.
  94. ISBN 978-0-15-157138-3
    .
  95. ^ a b Rogoff 1997, p. 129.
  96. ^ King 1972, p. 78.
  97. ^ Rogoff 1997, p. 136: "Goodman's difficult personality cast a shadow on his literary reputation."
  98. ^ a b Rogoff 1997, p. 136.
  99. ^ Widmer 1965, p. 176.
  100. ^ Sontag 1972, p. 276.
  101. ^ Sontag 1972, p. 275.
  102. ^ a b Sontag 1972, p. 277.
  103. ^ a b Kirsch 2012, p. 42.
  104. ISSN 1098-3376
    .
  105. ^ a b c Stoehr 1990, p. 494.
  106. ^ Stoehr 1990, p. 492.
  107. ^ Flanzbaum 2012.
  108. ^ Stoehr 1994a, p. 1.
  109. ^ Widmer 1980, p. 70.
  110. ^ Widmer 1980, p. 161.
  111. ^ a b Parisi 1986, p. 99.
  112. ProQuest 1620497091
    .
  113. ^ a b Redding 2015, p. 110.
  114. ^ Stoehr 1994c, p. 20.

References

Further reading

External links

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