Scintillator
A scintillator (/ˈsɪntɪleɪtər/ SIN-til-ay-ter) is a material that exhibits scintillation, the property of luminescence,[1] when excited by ionizing radiation. Luminescent materials, when struck by an incoming particle, absorb its energy and scintillate (i.e. re-emit the absorbed energy in the form of light).[a] Sometimes, the excited state is metastable, so the relaxation back down from the excited state to lower states is delayed (necessitating anywhere from a few nanoseconds to hours depending on the material). The process then corresponds to one of two phenomena: delayed fluorescence or phosphorescence. The correspondence depends on the type of transition and hence the wavelength of the emitted optical photon.
Principle of operation
A scintillation detector or scintillation counter is obtained when a scintillator is coupled to an electronic light sensor such as a photomultiplier tube (PMT), photodiode, or silicon photomultiplier. PMTs absorb the light emitted by the scintillator and re-emit it in the form of electrons via the photoelectric effect. The subsequent multiplication of those electrons (sometimes called photo-electrons) results in an electrical pulse which can then be analyzed and yield meaningful information about the particle that originally struck the scintillator. Vacuum photodiodes are similar but do not amplify the signal while silicon photodiodes, on the other hand, detect incoming photons by the excitation of charge carriers directly in the silicon. Silicon photomultipliers consist of an array of photodiodes which are reverse-biased with sufficient voltage to operate in avalanche mode, enabling each pixel of the array to be sensitive to single photons.[citation needed]
History
The first device which used a scintillator was built in 1903 by Sir William Crookes and used a ZnS screen.[2][3] The scintillations produced by the screen were visible to the naked eye if viewed by a microscope in a darkened room; the device was known as a spinthariscope. The technique led to a number of important discoveries but was obviously tedious. Scintillators gained additional attention in 1944, when Curran and Baker replaced the naked eye measurement with the newly developed PMT. This was the birth of the modern scintillation detector.[2]
Applications for scintillators
Scintillators are used by the American government as Homeland Security radiation detectors. Scintillators can also be used in particle detectors, new energy resource exploration, X-ray security, nuclear cameras, computed tomography and gas exploration. Other applications of scintillators include CT scanners and gamma cameras in medical diagnostics, and screens in older style CRT computer monitors and television sets. Scintillators have also been proposed[4] as part of theoretical models for the harnessing of gamma-ray energy through the photovoltaic effect, for example in a nuclear battery.
The use of a scintillator in conjunction with a photomultiplier tube finds wide use in hand-held survey meters used for detecting and measuring radioactive contamination and monitoring nuclear material. Scintillators generate light in fluorescent tubes, to convert the ultra-violet of the discharge into visible light. Scintillation detectors are also used in the petroleum industry as detectors for Gamma Ray logs.
Properties of scintillators
There are many desired properties of scintillators, such as high
Several other properties are also desirable in a good detector scintillator: a low gamma output (i.e., a high efficiency for converting the energy of incident radiation into scintillation photons), transparency to its own scintillation light (for good light collection), efficient detection of the radiation being studied, a high
Among the properties listed above, the light output is the most important, as it affects both the efficiency and the resolution of the detector (the efficiency is the ratio of detected particles to the total number of particles impinging upon the detector; the energy resolution is the ratio of the full width at half maximum of a given energy peak to the peak position, usually expressed in %). The light output is a strong function of the type of incident particle or photon and of its energy, which therefore strongly influences the type of scintillation material to be used for a particular application. The presence of quenching effects results in reduced light output (i.e., reduced scintillation efficiency). Quenching refers to all radiationless de‑excitation processes in which the excitation is degraded mainly to heat.[6] The overall signal production efficiency of the detector, however, also depends on the quantum efficiency of the PMT (typically ~30% at peak), and on the efficiency of light transmission and collection (which depends on the type of reflector material covering the scintillator and light guides, the length/shape of the light guides, any light absorption, etc.). The light output is often quantified as a number of scintillation photons produced per keV of deposited energy. Typical numbers are (when the incident particle is an electron): ≈40 photons/keV for NaI(Tl), ~10 photons/keV for plastic scintillators, and ~8 photons/keV for bismuth germanate (BGO).
Scintillation detectors are generally assumed to be linear. This assumption is based on two requirements: (1) that the light output of the scintillator is proportional to the energy of the incident radiation; (2) that the electrical pulse produced by the photomultiplier tube is proportional to the emitted scintillation light. The linearity assumption is usually a good rough approximation, although deviations can occur (especially pronounced for particles heavier than the proton at low energies).[1]
Resistance and good behavior under high-temperature, high-vibration environments is especially important for applications such as oil exploration (
The time evolution of the number of emitted scintillation photons N in a single scintillation event can often be described by linear superposition of one or two exponential decays. For two decays, we have the form:[1]
where τf and τs are the fast (or prompt) and the slow (or delayed) decay constants. Many scintillators are characterized by 2 time components: one fast (or prompt), the other slow (or delayed). While the fast component usually dominates, the relative amplitude A and B of the two components depend on the scintillating material. Both of these components can also be a function of the energy loss dE/dx. In cases where this energy loss dependence is strong, the overall decay time constant varies with the type of incident particle. Such scintillators enable pulse shape discrimination, i.e., particle identification based on the decay characteristics of the PMT electric pulse. For instance, when BaF2 is used, γ rays typically excite the fast component, while α particles excite the slow component: it is thus possible to identify them based on the decay time of the PMT signal.
Types of scintillators
Organic crystals
Organic scintillators are
Some organic scintillators are pure crystals. The most common types are
Organic liquids
These are liquid solutions of one or more organic scintillators in an
Plastic scintillators
The term "plastic scintillator" typically refers to a scintillating material in which the primary fluorescent emitter, called a fluor, is suspended in the base, a solid polymer matrix. While this combination is typically accomplished through the dissolution of the fluor prior to bulk polymerization, the fluor is sometimes associated with the polymer directly, either covalently or through coordination, as is the case with many Li6 plastic scintillators.
Bases
The most common bases used in plastic scintillators are the aromatic plastics, polymers with aromatic rings as pendant groups along the polymer backbone, amongst which
Other common bases include polyvinyl xylene (PVX) polymethyl, 2,4-dimethyl, 2,4,5-trimethyl styrenes, polyvinyl diphenyl, polyvinyl naphthalene, polyvinyl tetrahydronaphthalene, and copolymers of these and other bases.[15]
Fluors
Also known as luminophors, these compounds absorb the scintillation of the base and then emit at larger wavelength, effectively converting the ultraviolet radiation of the base into the more easily transferred visible light. Further increasing the attenuation length can be accomplished through the addition of a second fluor, referred to as a spectrum shifter or converter, often resulting in the emission of blue or green light.
Common fluors include polyphenyl hydrocarbons, oxazole and oxadiazole aryls, especially, n-terphenyl (PPP), 2,5-diphenyloxazole (PPO), 1,4-di-(5-phenyl-2-oxazolyl)-benzene (POPOP), 2-phenyl-5-(4-biphenylyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (PBD), and 2-(4’-tert-butylphenyl)-5-(4’’-biphenylyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (B-PBD).[17]
Inorganic crystals
Inorganic scintillators are usually crystals grown in high temperature
Newly developed products include LaCl
3(Ce),
1.8Y
0.2SiO
5(Ce)) has an even higher density (7.1 g/cm3, comparable to BGO
A disadvantage of some inorganic crystals, e.g., NaI, is their hygroscopicity, a property which requires them to be housed in an airtight container to protect them from moisture. CsI(Tl) and BaF2 are only slightly hygroscopic and do not usually need protection. CsF, NaI(Tl), LaCl
3(Ce), LaBr
3(Ce) are hygroscopic, while BGO, CaF
2(Eu), LYSO, and YAG(Ce) are not.
Inorganic crystals can be cut to small sizes and arranged in an array configuration so as to provide position sensitivity. Such arrays are often used in medical physics or security applications to detect X-rays or γ rays: high-Z, high density materials (e.g. LYSO, BGO) are typically preferred for this type of applications.
Scintillation in inorganic crystals is typically slower than in organic ones, ranging typically from 1.48 ns for ZnO(Ga) to 9000 ns for CaWO
4.[10] Exceptions are CsF (~5 ns), fast BaF
2 (0.7 ns; the slow component is at 630 ns), as well as the newer products (LaCl
3(Ce), 28 ns; LaBr
3(Ce), 16 ns; LYSO, 41 ns).
For the imaging application, one of the advantage of inorganic crystals is very high light yield. Some high light yield scintillators above 100,000 photons/MeV at 662 keV are very recently reported for LuI
3(Ce), SrI
2(Eu), and Cs
2HfCl
6.
Many semiconductor scintillator phosphors are known, such as ZnS(Ag) (mentioned in the history section), CdS(Ag), ZnO(Zn), ZnO(Ga), CdS(In), ZnSe(O), and ZnTe(O), but none of these are available as single crystals. CdS(Te) and ZnSe(Te) have been commercially available in single crystal form, but their luminosity is partially quenched at room temperature.[19]
GaAs(Si,B) is a recently discovered cryogenic semiconductor scintillator with high light output in the infra-red and apparently no afterglow. In combination with ultra-low noise cryogenic photodetectors it is the target in experiments to detect rare, low-energy electronic excitations from interacting dark matter.[20][21][22][23][24][25][26]
Gaseous scintillators
Gaseous scintillators consist of
Glasses
The most common
Solution-based perovskite scintillators
Scintillation properties of organic-inorganic methylamonium (MA) lead halide perovskites under proton irradiation were first reported by Shibuya et al. in 2002 [28] and the first γ-ray pulse height spectrum, although still with poor energy resolution, was reported on ((C
6H
5(CH
2)
2NH
3)
2PbBr
4) by van Eijk et al. in 2008 .[29] Birowosuto at al. [30] studied the scintillation properties of 3-D and 2-D layered perovskites under X-ray excitation. MAPbBr3 (CH
3NH
3PbBr
3) emits at 550 nm and MAPbI3 (CH
3NH
3PbI
3) at 750 nm which is attributed to exciton emission near the band gap of the compounds. In this first generation of Pb-halide perovskites the emission is strongly quenched at room temperature and less than 1 000 ph/MeV survive. At 10 K however intense emission is observed and [30] write about yields up to 200 000 ph/MeV. The quenching is attributed to the small e-h binding energy in the exciton that decreases for Cl to Br to I .[31] Interestingly one may replace the organic MA group with Cs+ to obtain full inorganic CsPbX3 halide perovskites. Depending on the Cl, Br, I content the triplet X-ray excited exciton emission can be tuned from 430 nm to 700 nm .[32] One may also dilute Cs with Rb to obtain similar tuning. Above very recent developments demonstrate that the organic-inorganic and all inorganic Pb-halide perovskites have various interesting scintillation properties. However, the recent two-dimensional perovskite single crystals with light yields between 10 000 and 40 000 ph/MeV and decay times below 10 ns at room temperature [30] will be more favorable as they may have much larger Stokes shift up to 200 nm in comparison with CsPbBr3 quantum dot scintillators and this is essential to prevent self reabsorption for scintillators.
More recently, a new material class first reported by Professor Biwu Ma's research group, called 0D organic metal halide hybrid (OMHH), an extension of the perovskite materials.[33] This class of materials exhibits strong exciton binding of hundreds of meV, resulting in their high photoluminescent quantum efficiency of almost unity. Their large stoke shift and reabsorption-free properties make them desirable.[33] Their potential applications for scintillators have been reported by the same group, and others.[34][35] In 2020,(C38H34P2)MnBr4 was reported to have a light yield up to 80 000 Photon/MeV despite its low Z compared to traditional all inorganic.[34] Impressive light yields from other 0D OMHH have been reported. There is a great potential to realize new generation scintillators from this material class. However, they are limited by their relatively long response time in microseconds, which is an area of intense research.
Physics of scintillation
Organic scintillators
Transitions made by the free
An incoming particle can excite either an electron level or a vibrational level. The singlet excitations immediately decay (< 10 ps) to the S* state without the emission of radiation (internal degradation). The S* state then decays to the ground state S0 (typically to one of the vibrational levels above S0) by emitting a scintillation photon. This is the prompt component or fluorescence. The transparency of the scintillator to the emitted photon is due to the fact that the energy of the photon is less than that required for an S0 → S* transition (the transition is usually being to a vibrational level above S0).[36][clarification needed]
When one of the triplet states gets excited, it immediately decays to the T0 state with no emission of radiation (internal degradation). Since the T0 → S0 transition is very improbable, the T0 state instead decays by interacting with another T0 molecule:[36]
and leaves one of the molecules in the S* state, which then decays to S0 with the release of a scintillation photon. Since the T0-T0 interaction takes time, the scintillation light is delayed: this is the slow or delayed component (corresponding to delayed fluorescence). Sometimes, a direct T0 → S0 transition occurs (also delayed), and corresponds to the phenomenon of phosphorescence. Note that the observational difference between delayed-fluorescence and phosphorescence is the difference in the wavelengths of the emitted optical photon in an S* → S0 transition versus a T0 → S0 transition.
Organic scintillators can be dissolved in an
Inorganic scintillators
The scintillation process in inorganic materials is due to the
BGO (
4 and CdWO
4
The scintillation process in GaAs doped with silicon and boron impurities is different from conventional scintillators in that the silicon n-type doping provides a built-in population of delocalized electrons at the bottom of the conduction band.[38] Some of the boron impurity atoms reside on arsenic sites and serve as acceptors.[39] A scintillation photon is produced whenever an acceptor atom such as boron captures an ionization hole from the valence band and that hole recombines radiatively with one of the delocalized electrons.[40] Unlike many other semiconductors, the delocalized electrons provided by the silicon are not “frozen out” at cryogenic temperatures. Above the Mott transition concentration of 8×1015 free carriers per cm3, the “metallic” state is maintained at cryogenic temperatures because mutual repulsion drives any additional electrons into the next higher available energy level, which is in the conduction band.[41] The spectrum of photons from this process is centered at 930 nm (1.33 eV) and there are three other emission bands centered at 860, 1070, and 1335 nm from other minor processes.[42] Each of these emission bands has a different luminosity and decay time.[43] The high scintillation luminosity is surprising because (1) with a refractive index of about 3.5, escape is inhibited by total internal reflection and (2) experiments at 90K report narrow-beam infrared absorption coefficients of several per cm.[44][45][46] Recent Monte Carlo and Feynman path integral calculations have shown that the high luminosity could be explained if most of the narrow beam absorption is actually a novel optical scattering from the conduction electrons with a cross section of about 5 x 10–18 cm2 that allows scintillation photons to escape total internal reflection.[47][48] This cross section is about 107 times larger than Thomson scattering but comparable to the optical cross section of the conduction electrons in a metal mirror.
Gases
In gases, the scintillation process is due to the de-excitation of single atoms excited by the passage of an incoming particle (a very rapid process: ≈1 ns).
Response to various radiations
Heavy ions
- the very high ionizing power of heavy ions induces will produce only about 1/10 the light);
- the high stopping power of the particles also results in a reduction of the fast component relative to the slow component, increasing detector dead-time;
- strong non-linearities are observed in the detector response especially at lower energies.
The reduction in light output is stronger for organics than for inorganic crystals. Therefore, where needed, inorganic crystals, e.g. CsI(Tl), ZnS(Ag) (typically used in thin sheets as α-particle monitors), CaF
2(Eu), should be preferred to organic materials. Typical applications are α-survey instruments, dosimetry instruments, and heavy ion dE/dx detectors. Gaseous scintillators have also been used in nuclear physics experiments.
Electrons
The detection efficiency for electrons is essentially 100% for most scintillators. But because electrons can make large angle scatterings (sometimes backscatterings), they can exit the detector without depositing their full energy in it. The back-scattering is a rapidly increasing function of the atomic number Z of the scintillator material. Organic scintillators, having a lower Z than inorganic crystals, are therefore best suited for the detection of low-energy (< 10 MeV) beta particles. The situation is different for high energy electrons: since they mostly lose their energy by bremsstrahlung at the higher energies, a higher-Z material is better suited for the detection of the bremsstrahlung photon and the production of the electromagnetic shower which it can induce.[50]
Gamma rays
High-Z materials, e.g. inorganic crystals, are best suited for the detection of gamma rays. The three basic ways that a gamma ray interacts with matter are: the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production. The photon is completely absorbed in photoelectric effect and pair production, while only partial energy is deposited in any given Compton scattering. The cross section for the photoelectric process is proportional to Z5, that for pair production proportional to Z2, whereas Compton scattering goes roughly as Z. A high-Z material therefore favors the former two processes, enabling the detection of the full energy of the gamma ray.[50] If the gamma rays are at higher energies (>5 MeV), pair production dominates.
Neutrons
Since the
List of inorganic scintillators
The following is a list of commonly used inorganic crystals:
- BaF
2 or barium fluoride: BaF
2 contains a very fast and a slow component. The fast scintillation light is emitted in the UV band (220 nm) and has a 0.7 ns decay time (smallest decay time for any scintillator), while the slow scintillation light is emitted at longer wavelengths (310 nm) and has a 630 ns decay time. It is used for fast timing applications, as well as applications for which pulse shape discrimination is needed. The light yield of BaF
2 is about 12 photons/keV.[52] BaF
2 is not hygroscopic. - BGO or machines.
- CdWO
4 or cadmium tungstate: a high density, high atomic number scintillator with a very long decay time (14 μs), and relatively high light output (about 1/3 of that of NaI(Tl)). CdWO
4 is routinely used for X-ray detection (CT scanners). Having very little 228Th and 226Ra contamination, it is also suitable for low activity counting applications. - CaF
2(Eu) or calcium fluoride doped with europium: The material is not hygroscopic, has a 940 ns decay time, and is relatively low-Z. The latter property makes it ideal for detection of low energy β particles because of low backscattering, but not very suitable for γ detection. Thin layers of CaF
2(Eu) have also been used with a thicker slab of NaI(Tl) to make phoswiches capable of discriminating between α, β, and γ particles. - CaWO
4 or - CsI: undoped cesium iodide emits predominantly at 315 nm, is only slightly hygroscopic, and has a very short decay time (16 ns), making it suitable for fast timing applications. The light output is quite low at room temperature, however, it significantly increases with cooling.[54]
- CsI(Na) or cesium iodide doped with sodium: the crystal is less bright than CsI(Tl), but comparable in light output to NaI(Tl). The wavelength of maximum emission is at 420 nm, well matched to the photocathode sensitivity of bi‑alkali PMTs. It has a slightly shorter decay time than CsI(Tl) (630 ns versus 1000 ns for CsI(Tl)). CsI(Na) is hygroscopic and needs an airtight enclosure for protection against moisture.
- CsI(Tl) or cesium iodide doped with thallium: these crystals are one of the brightest scintillators. Its maximum wavelength of light emission is in the green region at 550 nm. CsI(Tl) is only slightly hygroscopic and does not usually require an airtight enclosure.
- GaAs or gallium arsenide (suitably doped with silicon and boron impurities) is a cryogenic n-type semiconductor scintillator with a low cryogenic bandgap (1.52 eV) and high light output (100 photons/keV) in the infra-red (930 nm). The absence of thermally stimulated luminescence is evidence for the absence of afterglow, which makes it attractive for detecting rare, low energy electronic excitations from interacting dark matter. Large (5 kg) high-quality crystals are commercially grown for electronic applications.
- Gd
2O
2S or gadolinium oxysulfide has a high stopping power due to its relatively high density (7.32 g/cm3) and the high atomic number of gadolinium. The light output is also good, making it useful as a scintillator for x-ray imaging applications. - LaBr
3(Ce) (orlanthanum bromidedoped with cerium): a better (novel) alternative to NaI(Tl); denser, more efficient, much faster (having a decay time about ~20ns), offers superior energy resolution due to its very high light output. Moreover, the light output is very stable and quite high over a very wide range of temperatures, making it particularly attractive for high temperature applications. Depending on the application, the intrinsic activity of 138La can be a disadvantage. LaBr
3(Ce) is very hygroscopic. - LaCl
3(Ce) (orlanthanum chloride doped with cerium): very fast, high light output. LaCl
3(Ce) is a cheaper alternative to LaBr
3(Ce). It is also quite hygroscopic. - PbWO
4 orlead tungstate: due to its high-Z, PbWO
4 is suitable for applications where a high stopping power is required (e.g. γ ray detection). - LuI
3 or lutetium iodide. - LSO or lutetium oxyorthosilicate (Lu
2SiO
5): used in positron emission tomography because it exhibits properties similar to bismuth germanate (BGO), but with a higher light yield. Its only disadvantage is the intrinsic background from the beta decay of natural 176Lu. - LYSO (Lu
1.8Y
0.2SiO
5(Ce)): comparable in density to BGO, but much faster and with much higher light output; excellent for medical imaging applications. LYSO is non-hygroscopic. - NaI(Tl) or sodium iodide doped with thallium: NaI(Tl) is by far the most widely used scintillator material. It is available in single crystal form or the more rugged polycrystalline form (used in high vibration environments, e.g. wireline logging in the oil industry). Other applications include nuclear medicine, basic research, environmental monitoring, and aerial surveys. NaI(Tl) is very hygroscopic and needs to be housed in an airtight enclosure.
- YAG(Ce) or yttrium aluminum garnet: YAG(Ce) is non-hygroscopic. The wavelength of maximum emission is at 550 nm, well-matched to red-resistive PMTs or photo-diodes. It is relatively fast (70 ns decay time). Its light output is about 1/3 of that of NaI(Tl). The material exhibits some properties that make it particularly attractive for electron microscopy applications (e.g. high electron conversion efficiency, good resolution, mechanical ruggedness and long lifetime).
- ZnS(Ag) or zinc sulfide: ZnS(Ag) is one of the older inorganic scintillators (the first experiment making use of a scintillator by Sir William Crookes (1903) involved a ZnS screen). It is only available as a polycrystalline powder, however. Its use is therefore limited to thin screens used primarily for α particle detection.
- ZnWO
4 or zinc tungstate is similar to CdWO
4 scintillator exhibiting long decay constant 25 μs and slightly lower light yield.
See also
- Gamma spectroscopy
- Liquid scintillation counting
- Scintillation counter
- Scintillating bolometer
- Neutron detection
- Total absorption spectroscopy
Notes
- ^ In this article, "particle" is used to mean "ionizing radiation" and can refer either to charged particulate radiation, such as electrons and heavy charged particles, or to uncharged radiation, such as photons and neutrons, provided that they have enough energy to induce ionization.
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