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Sumatran tigers occupy a wide array of habitats, ranging from 0 m [[above sea level]] in the coastal lowland forest of [[Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park]] on the southeastern tip of [[Lampung Province]] to {{convert|3200|m|ft|abbr=on}} in mountain forests of [[Gunung Leuser National Park]] in [[Aceh Province]]. They have been repeatedly photographed at {{convert|2600|m|ft|abbr=on}} in a rugged region of northern Sumatra, and are present in 27 habitat patches larger than {{convert|250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Wibisono2010>Wibisono, H. T. and Pusarini, W. (2010). [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-4877.2010.00219.x/pdf ''Sumatran tiger (''Panthera tigris sumatrae''): A review of conservation status'']. Integrative Zoology 5: 313–323. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-4877.2010.00219.x.</ref>
Sumatran tigers occupy a wide array of habitats, ranging from 0 m [[above sea level]] in the coastal lowland forest of [[Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park]] on the southeastern tip of [[Lampung Province]] to {{convert|3200|m|ft|abbr=on}} in mountain forests of [[Gunung Leuser National Park]] in [[Aceh Province]]. They have been repeatedly photographed at {{convert|2600|m|ft|abbr=on}} in a rugged region of northern Sumatra, and are present in 27 habitat patches larger than {{convert|250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Wibisono2010>Wibisono, H. T. and Pusarini, W. (2010). [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-4877.2010.00219.x/pdf ''Sumatran tiger (''Panthera tigris sumatrae''): A review of conservation status'']. Integrative Zoology 5: 313–323. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-4877.2010.00219.x.</ref>


In 1978, the Sumatran tiger population was estimated at 1000 individuals, based on responses to a questionnaire survey.<ref>Borner, M. (1978). ''Status and conservation of the Sumatran tiger''. Carnivore 1 (1): 97–102.</ref> In 1985, a total of 26 protected areas across Sumatra containing approximately 800 tigers were identified.<ref>Santiapillai, C,, Ramono, W. S. (1987). ''Tiger numbers and
In 1978, the Sumatran tiger population was estimated at 1000 individuals, based on responses to a questionnaire survey.<ref>Borner, M. (1978). ''Status and conservation of the Sumatran tiger''. Carnivore 1 (1): 97–102.</ref> In 1985, a total of 26 protected areas across Sumatra containing approximately 800 tigers were identified.<ref>Santiapillai, C., Ramono, W. S. (1987). ''Tiger numbers and habitat evaluation in Indonesia''. Pages 85–91 in: Tilson, R. L., Seal, U. S. (eds.) ''Tigers of the World: The Biology, Biopolitics, Management, and Conservation of an Endangered Species''. Noyes Publications, New Jersey.</ref> In 1992, it was estimated that 400-500 tigers lived in five [[List_of_national_parks_of_Indonesia#Sumatra|national parks]] and 2 [[Protected areas of Indonesia|protected areas]].<ref>Tilson, R. L., Soemarna, K., Ramono, W. S., Lusli, S., Traylor-Holzer, K., Seal, U. S. (1994). ''Sumatran Tiger Populations and Habitat Viability Analysis''. Indonesian Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation, and IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley.</ref>
habitat evaluation in Indonesia''. Pages 85–91 in: Tilson, R. L., Seal, U. S. (eds.) ''Tigers of the World: The Biology, Biopolitics, Management, and Conservation of an Endangered Species''. Noyes Publications, New Jersey.</ref> In 1992, it was estimated that 400-500 tigers lived in five [[List_of_national_parks_of_Indonesia#Sumatra|national parks]] and 2 [[Protected areas of Indonesia|protected areas]].<ref>Tilson, R. L., Soemarna, K., Ramono, W. S., Lusli, S., Traylor-Holzer, K., Seal, U. S. (1994). ''Sumatran Tiger Populations and Habitat Viability Analysis''. Indonesian Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation, and IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley.</ref>
At the time, the largest population was reported from the [[Gunung Leuser National Park]] as comprising 110 to 180 individuals.<ref>Griffiths, M. (1994). ''Population density of Sumatran tigers in Gunung Leuser National Park''. Pages 93–102 in: Tilson, R., Soemarna, K., Ramono, W. S., Lusli, S., Traylor-Holzer, K., Seal, U. (eds.) ''Sumatran Tiger Population and Habitat Viability Analysis Report''. Directorate of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation and IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, Minnesota.</ref>
At the time, the largest population was reported from the [[Gunung Leuser National Park]] as comprising 110 to 180 individuals.<ref>Griffiths, M. (1994). ''Population density of Sumatran tigers in Gunung Leuser National Park''. Pages 93–102 in: Tilson, R., Soemarna, K., Ramono, W. S., Lusli, S., Traylor-Holzer, K., Seal, U. (eds.) ''Sumatran Tiger Population and Habitat Viability Analysis Report''. Directorate of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation and IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, Minnesota.</ref>
In 2007, a minimum of 250 adult tigers were estimated as living in 8 of the 18 tiger habitats across Sumatra.<ref>Indonesian Ministry of Forestry (2007). ''Strategy and action plan for the Sumatran Tiger (''Panthera tigris sumatrae'') 2007–2017''. Indonesian Ministry of Forestry, Jakarta, Indonesia.</ref>
In 2007, a minimum of 250 adult tigers were estimated as living in 8 of the 18 tiger habitats across Sumatra.<ref>Indonesian Ministry of Forestry (2007). ''Strategy and action plan for the Sumatran Tiger (''Panthera tigris sumatrae'') 2007–2017''. Indonesian Ministry of Forestry, Jakarta, Indonesia.</ref>
In 2008, about 300 individuals were estimated to persist in Sumatra.<ref>Seidensticker, J., Gratwicke, B., Shrestha, M. (2010). ''How many wild tigers are there? An estimate for 2008''. Pages 295–299 in: Tilson, R. L, Nyhus, P. J. (eds.) ''Tigers of the World: The Science, Politics and Conservation of'' Panthera tigris. Second edition. Academic Press, London.</ref>
In 2008, about 300 individuals were estimated to persist in Sumatra.<ref>Seidensticker, J., Gratwicke, B., Shrestha, M. (2010). ''How many wild tigers are there? An estimate for 2008''. Pages 295–299 in: Tilson, R. L., Nyhus, P. J. (eds.) ''Tigers of the World: The Science, Politics and Conservation of'' Panthera tigris. Second edition. Academic Press, London.</ref>


== Ecology and behaviour ==
== Ecology and behaviour ==
Sumatran tigers strongly prefer forest and use [[plantations]] of [[acacia]] and [[oil palm]] far less than their availability. Within natural forest areas they tend to use areas with higher elevation, lower annual rainfall, farther from forest edge, and closer to forest centres. They prefer forest with dense understory cover and steep slope, and they strongly avoid forest areas with high human influence in the forms of [[encroachment]] and settlement. In acacia plantations they tend to use areas closer to water, and prefer areas with older plants, more leaf litter and thicker sub-canopy cover. They avoid areas with high human activity. Tiger records in oil palm plantations and in [[rubber plantation]]s are scarce. The availability of adequate vegetation cover at the ground level serves as an environmental condition fundamentally needed by tigers regardless of the location. Without adequate understory cover, tigers are even more vulnerable to persecution by humans. Human disturbance related variables negatively affect tiger occupancy and habitat use. Variables with strong impacts include settlement and encroachment within forest areas, [[logging]] and the intensity of maintenance in acacia plantations.<ref>Sunarto, S., Kelly, M. J., Parakkasi, K., Klenzendorf, S., Septayuda, E., Kurniawan, H. (2012). [http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0030859 ''Tigers Need Cover: Multi-Scale Occupancy Study of the Big Cat in Sumatran Forest and Plantation Landscapes'']. PLoS ONE 7(1): e30859.</ref>
⚫
{{refimprove|date=April 2012}}
[[Camera trap]]ping surveys conducted in southern [[Riau]] revealed an extremely low abundance of potential prey and a low tiger density in [[peat swamp forest]] areas. Repeated sampling in the newly established [[Tesso Nilo National Park]] documented a trend of increasing tiger density from 0.90 individuals per {{convert|100|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in 2005 to 1.70 individuals per {{convert|100|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in 2008.<ref>Sunarto, S. (2011). ''Ecology and restoration of Sumatran tigers in forest and plantation landscapes''. PhD thesis. Blacksburg, USA.</ref>
Sumatran tigers commonly prey on larger [[ungulate]]s like [[wild pig]], [[Malayan Tapir]], and [[deer]], and sometimes also smaller animals such as [[fowl]], [[Old World monkey|monkeys]], and [[fish]]. [[Orangutan]]s could be prey, but since they spend a minimal amount of time on the ground, tigers rarely catch one.

Sumatran tigers will sometimes prey upon mice and other small mammals when larger prey is scarce.
In the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, nine prey species larger than {{convert|1|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of body weight were identified including [[Argusianus argus|Great Argus Pheasant]], [[Macaca nemestrina|Pigtail Macaque]], [[Hystrix brachyura|porcupine]], [[Tapirus indicus|Malay tapir]], [[wild pig]], [[Greater mouse-deer|Greater]] and [[Lesser mouse-deer]], [[Muntiacus muntjak|muntjac]] and [[Sambar deer]].<ref>O’Brien, T. G., Kinnard, M. F. and Wibisono, H. T. (2003). ''Crouching tigers, hidden prey: Sumatran tiger and prey populations in a tropical forest landscape''. Animal Conservation 6: 131–139.</ref>


== Threats ==
== Threats ==
⚫
{{refimprove|date=April 2012}}
The Sumatran tiger's habitat is being drastically reduced by logging, clearing for agriculture and plantations, and settlement. In Sumatra, tiger habitat is shrinking fast with timber resources being exploited on a large scale. The tiger in Sumatra faces precarious prospects if its present distribution continues to be substantially reduced and populations become small, fragmented and isolated from one another. They have other problems, such as; illegal logging, poaching and illegal hunting. Although the numbers of tigers incidentally killed or as a result of human-tiger conflict are significant, most tigers in Sumatra are apparently killed deliberately for commercial gain. Moreover, there is no evidence that tiger poaching has declined significantly since the early 1990s. This is despite intensified conservation and protection measures in Sumatra, and the apparent success globally in curtailing markets for tiger bone.
The Sumatran tiger's habitat is being drastically reduced by logging, clearing for agriculture and plantations, and settlement. In Sumatra, tiger habitat is shrinking fast with timber resources being exploited on a large scale. The tiger in Sumatra faces precarious prospects if its present distribution continues to be substantially reduced and populations become small, fragmented and isolated from one another. They have other problems, such as; illegal logging, poaching and illegal hunting. Although the numbers of tigers incidentally killed or as a result of human-tiger conflict are significant, most tigers in Sumatra are apparently killed deliberately for commercial gain. Moreover, there is no evidence that tiger poaching has declined significantly since the early 1990s. This is despite intensified conservation and protection measures in Sumatra, and the apparent success globally in curtailing markets for tiger bone.


Revision as of 13:21, 6 February 2013

Sumatran tiger

Critically Endangered  (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Order:
Carnivora
Family:
Felidae
Genus:
Panthera
Species:
P. tigris
Subspecies:
P. t. sumatrae
Trinomial name
Panthera tigris sumatrae
Pocock, 1929
Distribution map

The Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) is a rare

IUCN in 2008 as the population is projected to be 441 to 679 individuals, with no subpopulation having an effective population size larger than 50 individuals, with a declining trend.[1]

The Sumatran tiger is the only surviving member of the

mitochondrial genes of 34 tigers support the hypothesis that Sumatran tigers are diagnostically distinct from mainland populations.[3]

Characteristics

Sumatran tiger in the Melbourne Zoo

Pocock first described the Sumatran tiger on the basis of several skull, pelage and striping features in which it is distinct from the Indian and Javan tigers. It is darker in fur colour and has thicker stripes than the Javan tiger.[4] Stripes tend to disintegrate into spots near their ends, and lines of small dark specks between regular stripes may be found on the back, flanks and hind legs.[5] The frequency of stripes is higher than in other subspecies.[6]

Males have a prominent ruff, which is especially marked in the Sumatran tiger.[7]

The Sumatran tiger is one of the smallest tiger subspecies. Males weigh 100 to 140 kg (220 to 310 lb) and measure 220 to 225 cm (87 to 89 in) in length between the pegs with a greatest length of skull of 295 to 335 mm (11.6 to 13.2 in). Females weigh 75 to 110 kg (165 to 243 lb) and measure 215 to 230 cm (85 to 91 in) in length between the pegs with a greatest length of skull of 263 to 294 mm (10.4 to 11.6 in).[5]

Distribution and habitat

Sumatran tigers occupy a wide array of habitats, ranging from 0 m

Aceh Province. They have been repeatedly photographed at 2,600 m (8,500 ft) in a rugged region of northern Sumatra, and are present in 27 habitat patches larger than 250 km2 (97 sq mi).[8]

In 1978, the Sumatran tiger population was estimated at 1000 individuals, based on responses to a questionnaire survey.[9] In 1985, a total of 26 protected areas across Sumatra containing approximately 800 tigers were identified.[10] In 1992, it was estimated that 400-500 tigers lived in five national parks and 2 protected areas.[11] At the time, the largest population was reported from the Gunung Leuser National Park as comprising 110 to 180 individuals.[12] In 2007, a minimum of 250 adult tigers were estimated as living in 8 of the 18 tiger habitats across Sumatra.[13] In 2008, about 300 individuals were estimated to persist in Sumatra.[14]

Ecology and behaviour

Sumatran tigers strongly prefer forest and use

rubber plantations are scarce. The availability of adequate vegetation cover at the ground level serves as an environmental condition fundamentally needed by tigers regardless of the location. Without adequate understory cover, tigers are even more vulnerable to persecution by humans. Human disturbance related variables negatively affect tiger occupancy and habitat use. Variables with strong impacts include settlement and encroachment within forest areas, logging and the intensity of maintenance in acacia plantations.[15]
Camera trapping surveys conducted in southern Riau revealed an extremely low abundance of potential prey and a low tiger density in peat swamp forest areas. Repeated sampling in the newly established Tesso Nilo National Park documented a trend of increasing tiger density from 0.90 individuals per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in 2005 to 1.70 individuals per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in 2008.[16]

In the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, nine prey species larger than 1 kg (2.2 lb) of body weight were identified including

muntjac and Sambar deer.[17]

Threats

The Sumatran tiger's habitat is being drastically reduced by logging, clearing for agriculture and plantations, and settlement. In Sumatra, tiger habitat is shrinking fast with timber resources being exploited on a large scale. The tiger in Sumatra faces precarious prospects if its present distribution continues to be substantially reduced and populations become small, fragmented and isolated from one another. They have other problems, such as; illegal logging, poaching and illegal hunting. Although the numbers of tigers incidentally killed or as a result of human-tiger conflict are significant, most tigers in Sumatra are apparently killed deliberately for commercial gain. Moreover, there is no evidence that tiger poaching has declined significantly since the early 1990s. This is despite intensified conservation and protection measures in Sumatra, and the apparent success globally in curtailing markets for tiger bone.

Conservation

In 2006, the Indonesia Forestry Service, the Natural Resources and Conservational Agency (BKSDA) and the Sumatran Tiger Conservation Program began talks with commercial concession holders and Asia Pulp & Paper, and set the foundations for the Senepis Buluhala Tiger Sanctuary, an area that covered 106,000 hectares in Riau by 2008. These organizations formed The Tiger Conservation Working Group with other interested parties and the project is recognised[by whom?] as a pioneering initiative.

In 2007, the Indonesian Forestry Ministry and Safari Park established cooperation with the

natural habitat. One hectare of 186 hectares of Taman Safari is the world's only Sumatran tiger captive breeding center which has also sperm bank.[18]

A 110,000 acre conservation area and rehabilitation center, Tambling Wildlife Nature Conservation, has been set up on the edge of a national park on the southern tip of Sumatra (Lampung).[19] On October 26 2011, a tigress who had been captured with an injured leg in early October delivered three male cubs in a temporary cage, while waiting for release after her recovery.[20]

Genetics and evolution

Analysis of DNA is consistent with the hypothesis that Sumatran tigers have been isolated from other tiger populations after a rise in sea level that occurred at the Pleistocene to Holocene border (about 12,000-6,000 years ago). In agreement with this evolutionary history, the Sumatran tiger is genetically isolated from all living mainland tigers, which form a distinct group closely related to each other.[3]

See also

  • Bali Tiger
  • Javan Tiger
  • Trinil Tiger
  • Sumatran Rhino

References

  1. ^ a b Template:IUCN
  2. ^ Mazák, J. H., Groves, C. P. (2006) A taxonomic revision of the tigers (Panthera tigris). Mammalian Biology 71 (5): 268–287.
  3. ^
    doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.1998.tb00021.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  4. ^ Pocock, R. I. (1929). Tigers. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 33: 505−541.
  5. ^ a b Mazák, V. (1981). Panthera tigris. Mammalian Species 152: 1–8.
  6. ^ Kitchener, A. (1999). Tiger distribution, phenotypic variation and conservation issues. Pages 19–39 in: Seidensticker, J., Christie, S., Jackson, P. (eds.) Riding the Tiger. Tiger Conservation in human-dominated landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. hardback ISBN 0-521-64057-1, paperback ISBN 0-521-64835-1.
  7. ^ Nowell, K., Jackson, P. (1996). Tiger Panthera tigris (Linnaeus 1758) in: Wild Cats: status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland
  8. ^ Wibisono, H. T. and Pusarini, W. (2010). Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae): A review of conservation status. Integrative Zoology 5: 313–323. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-4877.2010.00219.x.
  9. ^ Borner, M. (1978). Status and conservation of the Sumatran tiger. Carnivore 1 (1): 97–102.
  10. ^ Santiapillai, C., Ramono, W. S. (1987). Tiger numbers and habitat evaluation in Indonesia. Pages 85–91 in: Tilson, R. L., Seal, U. S. (eds.) Tigers of the World: The Biology, Biopolitics, Management, and Conservation of an Endangered Species. Noyes Publications, New Jersey.
  11. ^ Tilson, R. L., Soemarna, K., Ramono, W. S., Lusli, S., Traylor-Holzer, K., Seal, U. S. (1994). Sumatran Tiger Populations and Habitat Viability Analysis. Indonesian Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation, and IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley.
  12. ^ Griffiths, M. (1994). Population density of Sumatran tigers in Gunung Leuser National Park. Pages 93–102 in: Tilson, R., Soemarna, K., Ramono, W. S., Lusli, S., Traylor-Holzer, K., Seal, U. (eds.) Sumatran Tiger Population and Habitat Viability Analysis Report. Directorate of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation and IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, Minnesota.
  13. ^ Indonesian Ministry of Forestry (2007). Strategy and action plan for the Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) 2007–2017. Indonesian Ministry of Forestry, Jakarta, Indonesia.
  14. ^ Seidensticker, J., Gratwicke, B., Shrestha, M. (2010). How many wild tigers are there? An estimate for 2008. Pages 295–299 in: Tilson, R. L., Nyhus, P. J. (eds.) Tigers of the World: The Science, Politics and Conservation of Panthera tigris. Second edition. Academic Press, London.
  15. ^ Sunarto, S., Kelly, M. J., Parakkasi, K., Klenzendorf, S., Septayuda, E., Kurniawan, H. (2012). Tigers Need Cover: Multi-Scale Occupancy Study of the Big Cat in Sumatran Forest and Plantation Landscapes. PLoS ONE 7(1): e30859.
  16. ^ Sunarto, S. (2011). Ecology and restoration of Sumatran tigers in forest and plantation landscapes. PhD thesis. Blacksburg, USA.
  17. ^ O’Brien, T. G., Kinnard, M. F. and Wibisono, H. T. (2003). Crouching tigers, hidden prey: Sumatran tiger and prey populations in a tropical forest landscape. Animal Conservation 6: 131–139.
  18. ^ "Sumatran tiger sperm bank". December 15, 2012.
  19. ^ "On the prowl for man-eating tigers". November 19, 2010.
  20. ^ "Tambling Ketambahan Tiga Anak Harimau". November 1, 2011.

External links

Wikispecies has information related to Panthera tigris sumatrae.
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