Special effect
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Special effects (often abbreviated as F/X or simply FX) are illusions or visual tricks used in the theatre, film, television, video game, amusement park and simulator industries to simulate the imagined events in a story or virtual world. It used to be called SFX but this short form has also expanded to include “sound effects” as well.
Special effects are traditionally divided into the categories of mechanical effects and optical effects. With the emergence of digital film-making a distinction between special effects and visual effects has grown, with the latter referring to digital post-production and optical effects, while "special effects" refers to mechanical effects.
Mechanical effects (also called
Optical effects (also called photographic effects) are the techniques in which images or film frames are created photographically, either "in-camera" using multiple exposure, mattes or the Schüfftan process or in post-production using an optical printer. An optical effect might be used to place actors or sets against a different background.
Since the 1990s, computer-generated imagery (CGI) has come to the forefront of special effects technologies. It gives filmmakers greater control, and allows many effects to be accomplished more safely. As a result, many optical and mechanical effects techniques have been superseded by CGI.
Developmental history
Early development
In 1857,
It wasn't only the first use of trickery in cinema, it was also the first type of photographic trickery that was only possible in a motion picture, and referred to as the "stop trick". Georges Méliès, an early motion picture pioneer, accidentally discovered the same "stop trick." According to Méliès, his camera jammed while filming a street scene in Paris. When he screened the film, he found that the "stop trick" had caused a truck to turn into a hearse, pedestrians to change direction, and men to turn into women. Méliès, the stage manager at the Theatre Robert-Houdin, was inspired to develop a series of more than 500 short films between 1896 and 1914, in the process developing or inventing such techniques as multiple exposures, time-lapse photography, dissolves, and hand painted color. Because of his ability to seemingly manipulate and transform reality with the cinematograph, the prolific Méliès is sometimes referred to as the "Cinemagician." His most famous film, Le Voyage dans la lune (1902), a whimsical parody of Jules Verne's From the Earth to the Moon, featured a combination of live action and animation, and also incorporated extensive miniature and matte painting work.
From 1910 to 1920, the main innovations in special effects were the improvements on the matte shot by Norman Dawn. With the original matte shot, pieces of cardboard were placed to block the exposure of the film, which would be exposed later. Dawn combined this technique with the "glass shot." Rather than using cardboard to block certain areas of the film exposure, Dawn simply painted certain areas black to prevent any light from exposing the film. From the partially exposed film, a single frame is then projected onto an easel, where the matte is then drawn. By creating the matte from an image directly from the film, it became incredibly easy to paint an image with proper respect to scale and perspective (the main flaw of the glass shot). Dawn's technique became the textbook for matte shots due to the natural images it created.[2]
During the 1920s and 1930s, special effects techniques were improved and refined by the motion picture industry. Many techniques—such as the Schüfftan process—were modifications of illusions from the theater (such as pepper's ghost) and still photography (such as double exposure and matte compositing). Rear projection was a refinement of the use of painted backgrounds in the theater, substituting moving pictures to create moving backgrounds. Lifecasting of faces was imported from traditional maskmaking. Along with makeup advances, fantastic masks could be created which fit the actor perfectly. As material science advanced, horror film maskmaking followed closely.
Many studios established in-house "special effects" departments, which were responsible for nearly all optical and mechanical aspects of motion-picture trickery. Also, the challenge of simulating spectacle in motion encouraged the development of the use of miniatures.
An important innovation in special-effects photography was the development of the optical printer. Essentially, an optical printer is a projector aiming into a camera lens, and it was developed to make copies of films for distribution. Until Linwood G. Dunn refined the design and use of the optical printer, effects shots were accomplished as in-camera effects. Dunn demonstrating that it could be used to combine images in novel ways and create new illusions. One early showcase for Dunn was Orson Welles' Citizen Kane, where such locations as Xanadu (and some of Gregg Toland's famous 'deep focus' shots) were essentially created by Dunn's optical printer.
Color era
The science fiction boom
During the 1950s and 1960s numerous new special effects were developed which would dramatically increase the level of realism achievable in
The
In 1968, Stanley Kubrick assembled his own effects team (
The 1970s provided two profound changes in the special effects trade. The first was economic: during the industry's recession in the late 1960s and early 1970s, many studios closed down their in-house effects houses. Technicians became freelancers or founded their own effects companies, sometimes specializing on particular techniques (opticals, animation, etc.).
The second was precipitated by the blockbuster success of two science-fiction and fantasy films in 1977. George Lucas's Star Wars ushered in an era of science-fiction films with expensive and impressive special effects. Effects supervisor John Dykstra, A.S.C. and crew developed many improvements in existing effects technology. They created a computer-controlled camera rig called the "Dykstraflex" that allowed precise repetition of camera motion, greatly facilitating travelling-matte compositing. Degradation of film images during compositing was minimized by other innovations: the Dykstraflex used VistaVision cameras that photographed widescreen images horizontally along stock, using far more of the film per frame, and thinner-emulsion filmstocks were used in the compositing process. The effects crew assembled by Lucas was dubbed Industrial Light & Magic, and since 1977 has spearheaded many effects innovations.
That same year,
The success of these films, and others since, has prompted massive studio investment in effects-heavy science-fiction films. This has fueled the establishment of many independent effects houses, a tremendous degree of refinement of existing techniques, and the development of new techniques such as computer-generated imagery (CGI). It has also encouraged within the industry a greater distinction between special effects and visual effects; the latter is used to characterize post-production and optical work, while "special effects" refers more often to on-set and mechanical effects.
Introduction of computer-generated imagery (CGI)
The use of computer animation in film dates back to the early 1980s, with the films Tron (1982)[3] and Golgo 13: The Professional (1983).[6] Since the 1990s, a profound innovation in special effects has been the development of computer-generated imagery (CGI), which has changed nearly every aspect of motion picture special effects. Digital compositing allows far more control and creative freedom than optical compositing, and does not degrade the image as with analog (optical) processes. Digital imagery has enabled technicians to create detailed models, matte "paintings," and even fully realized characters with the malleability of computer software.
Arguably the biggest and most "spectacular" use of CGI is in the creation of photo-realistic images of science-fiction/fantasy characters, settings and objects. Images can be created in a computer using the techniques of animated cartoons and model animation. The Last Starfighter (1984) used computer generated spaceships instead of physical scale models. In 1993, stop-motion animators working on the realistic dinosaurs of Steven Spielberg's Jurassic Park were retrained in the use of computer input devices. By 1995, films such as Toy Story underscored the fact that the distinction between live-action films and animated films was no longer clear. Other landmark examples include a character made up of broken pieces of a stained-glass window in Young Sherlock Holmes, a shape-shifting character in Willow, a tentacle formed from water in The Abyss, the T-1000 Terminator in Terminator 2: Judgment Day, hordes and armies of robots and fantastic creatures in the Star Wars (prequel) and The Lord of the Rings trilogies, and the planet, Pandora, in Avatar.
Planning and use
Although most visual effects work is completed during
Practical effects also require significant pre-planning and co-ordination with performers and production teams. The live nature of the effects can result in situations where resetting due to an error, mistake, or safety concern incurs significant expense, or is impossible due to the destructive nature of the effect.
Live special effects
Live special effects are effects that are used in front of a live audience, such as in theatre, sporting generation genre, concerts and corporate shows. Types of effects that are commonly used include: flying effects, laser lighting, theatrical smoke and fog, CO2 effects, and pyrotechnics. Other atmospheric effects can include flame, confetti, bubbles, and snow.[7]
One notable example of live special effects in theatre production is in the Bregenz Festival with its use of a large, intricate stage that moves to supplement what's being acted on stage.[8]
Mechanical effects
Visual special effects techniques
- Bullet hit squibs
- Bullet time
- Computer-generated imagery (often using Shaders)
- Digital compositing
- Dolly zoom
- In-camera effects
- Match moving
- Matte (filmmaking) and Matte painting
- Video matting
- Miniature effects
- Morphing
- Motion control photography
- Optical effects
- Optical printing
- Practical effects
- Prosthetic makeup effects
- Rotoscoping
- Reverse motion
- Stop motion
- Go motion
- Schüfftan process
- Splash of color[9]
- Traveling matte
- Virtual cinematography
- Wire removal
Noted special effects companies
- Adobe Systems Incorporated(San Jose, USA)
- Animal Logic (Sydney, Australia; Venice, USA)
- Bird Studios (London, UK)
- BUF Compagnie (Paris, France)
- CA Scanline (Munich, Germany)
- Cinema Research Corporation, defunct (Hollywood, USA)
- Cinesite (London, UK; Hollywood, USA)
- Creature Effects, Inc. (Los Angeles, USA)
- Digital Domain (Playa Vista, USA)
- Double Negative (VFX)(London, UK)
- DreamWorks (Los Angeles, USA)
- Flash Film Works (Los Angeles, USA)
- Fireark Special Effects (Brisbane, Australia)
- Framestore (London, UK)
- Hydraulx (Santa Monica, USA)
- Image Engine (Vancouver, Canada)
- Industrial Light & Magic (San Francisco, USA), founded by George Lucas
- Intelligent Creatures (Toronto, Canada)
- Jim Henson's Creature Shop, (Los Angeles; Hollywood; Camden Town, London)
- Legacy Effects, (Los Angeles, USA)
- Look Effects, (Culver City, USA)
- M5 Industries (San Francisco, USA) home of MythBusters
- Mac Guff (Los Angeles, USA; Paris, France)
- Machine Shop (London, UK)
- Makuta VFX (Universal City, USA; Hyderabad, India)
- Matte World Digital (Novato, USA)
- Method Studios (Los Angeles, USA; New York, USA; Vancouver, Canada)
- The Mill(London, UK; New York, USA; Los Angeles, USA)
- Modus FX (Montreal, Canada)
- Moving Picture Company (Soho, London, UK)
- Pixomondo (Frankfurt; Munich; Stuttgart; Los Angeles; Beijing; Toronto; Baton Rouge, LA)
- Rainmaker Digital Effects (Vancouver, Canada)
- Rhythm and Hues Studios (Los Angeles, USA)
- Rise FX (Berlin, Germany)
- Rising Sun Pictures (Adelaide, Australia)
- Rodeo FX (Montreal; Munich; Los Angeles)
- Snowmasters(Lexington, AL, USA)
- Sony Pictures Imageworks (Culver City, USA)
- Strictly FX, live special effects company
- Surreal World (Melbourne, Australia)
- Super FX, Special Effects Company (Italy)
- Tippett Studio (Berkeley, USA)
- Tsuburaya Productions (Hachimanyama, Setagaya, Tokyo)
- Vision Crew Unlimited, defunct (Los Angeles, USA)
- Wētā FX, (Wellington, New Zealand)
- Zoic Studios (Culver City, USA)
- ZFX Inca flying effects company (Louisville, USA; Utrecht, the Netherlands)
Noted special effects directors
- Eiji Tsuburaya, the "Father of Tokusatsu"
- Tom Howard
- John P. Fulton
- Douglas Trumbull
- Ken Pepiot
- Stan Winston
- John Dykstra
- Koichi Kawakita
- Teruyoshi Nakano
- Yonesaburo Tsukiji
- Yoshiyuki Kuroda
- Yoshihiro Nishimura
- Akira Watanabe
Notes
- ^ Rickitt, 10.
- ^ Baker, 101-4
- ^ a b "The Making of Tron". Video Games Player. Vol. 1, no. 1. Carnegie Publications. September 1982. pp. 50–5.
- ISBN 0-520-24565-2
- ISBN 0786704853.
- ISBN 1569762228.
- ISBN 978-1-4914-2003-4.
- ^ "Bregenz Festival's most spectacular water stages". CinemaLive. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
- ^ Peshin, Akash (4 December 2017). "How Are Black And White Films Colorized?". Science ABC. Wattcon Technologies Private Limited. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
References
- Cinefex magazine
- American Cinematographer magazine
- Richard Rickitt: Special Effects: The History and Technique, ISBN 0-8230-8408-6
- Movie Magic: The History of Special Effects in the Cinema by John Brosnan (1974)
- Techniques of Special Effects Cinematography by Raymond Fielding (For many years, the standard technical reference. Current edition 1985)
- Special Effects: Titanic and Beyond The online companion site to the NOVA documentary (See especially the timeline and glossary)
- T. Porter and T. Duff, "Compositing Digital Images", Proceedings of SIGGRAPH '84, 18 (1984).
- The Art and Science of Digital Compositing (ISBN 0-12-133960-2)
- McClean, Shilo T. (2007). Digital Storytelling: The Narrative Power of Visual Effects in Film. ISBN 978-0-262-13465-1.
- ISBN 0-8118-4515-X
- Larry Nile Baker, A History of Special Effects Cinematography in the United States, 1895–1914, Larry Nile Baker, 1969.
External links
- Video (03:04) – Evolution of Special Effects since 1878.
- How to Add Special Effects to Your Videos.
- Chinese Film Classics: Special effects in early Chinese cinema: clips and discussion of special effects in Chinese films from before 1949, on scholarly website chinesefilmclassics.org