Steam turbine
A steam turbine is a
The steam turbine is a form of
Because the
Technical challenges include rotor imbalance, vibration, bearing wear, and uneven expansion (various forms of thermal shock). In large installations, even the sturdiest turbine will shake itself apart if operated out of trim.
History
The first device that may be classified as a reaction steam turbine was little more than a toy, the classic
The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Charles Parsons, whose first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kilowatts (10.1 hp) of electricity.[12] The invention of Parsons' steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare.[13] Parsons' design was a reaction type. His patent was licensed and the turbine scaled up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, and the size of generators had increased from his first 7.5 kilowatts (10.1 hp) set up to units of 50,000 kilowatts (67,000 hp) capacity. Within Parsons' lifetime, the generating capacity of a unit was scaled up by about 10,000 times,[14] and the total output from turbo-generators constructed by his firm C. A. Parsons and Company and by their licensees, for land purposes alone, had exceeded thirty million horse-power.[12]
Other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine (invented by
The Brown-Curtis turbine, an impulse type, which had been originally developed and patented by the U.S. company International Curtis Marine Turbine Company, was developed in the 1900s in conjunction with John Brown & Company. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners and Royal Navy warships.
Manufacturing
The present day manufacturing industry for steam turbines consists of the following companies:
- WEG (Brazil)
- Harbin Electric, Shanghai Electric, Dongfang Electric (China)
- Doosan Škoda Power (Czech - South Korea)
- Alstom (France)
- Siemens (Germany)
- BHEL, Larsen & Toubro, Triveni Engineering & Industries (India)
- MAPNA(Iran)
- Ansaldo (Italy)
- Mitsubishi, KwHI, Toshiba, IHI (Japan)
- Silmash, Ural TW, Nevsky Turbine Plant (Nevsky NTW) , KTZ Energomash-Atomenergo (Russia)
- Turboatom (Ukraine)
- General Electric (USA)
Types
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small <0.75 kW (<1 hp) units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 1,500 MW (2,000,000 hp) turbines used to generate electricity. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines.
Blade and stage design
Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and
Except for low-power applications, turbine blades are arranged in multiple stages in series, called compounding, which greatly improves efficiency at low speeds.[18] A reaction stage is a row of fixed nozzles followed by a row of moving nozzles. Multiple reaction stages divide the pressure drop between the steam inlet and exhaust into numerous small drops, resulting in a pressure-compounded turbine. Impulse stages may be either pressure-compounded, velocity-compounded, or pressure-velocity compounded. A pressure-compounded impulse stage is a row of fixed nozzles followed by a row of moving blades, with multiple stages for compounding. This is also known as a Rateau turbine, after its inventor. A velocity-compounded impulse stage (invented by Curtis and also called a "Curtis wheel") is a row of fixed nozzles followed by two or more rows of moving blades alternating with rows of fixed blades. This divides the velocity drop across the stage into several smaller drops.[19] A series of velocity-compounded impulse stages is called a pressure-velocity compounded turbine.
By 1905, when steam turbines were coming into use on fast ships (such as HMS Dreadnought) and in land-based power applications, it had been determined that it was desirable to use one or more Curtis wheels at the beginning of a multi-stage turbine (where the steam pressure is highest), followed by reaction stages. This was more efficient with high-pressure steam due to reduced leakage between the turbine rotor and the casing.[20] This is illustrated in the drawing of the German 1905 AEG marine steam turbine. The steam from the boilers enters from the right at high pressure through a throttle, controlled manually by an operator (in this case a sailor known as the throttleman). It passes through five Curtis wheels and numerous reaction stages (the small blades at the edges of the two large rotors in the middle) before exiting at low pressure, almost certainly to a condenser. The condenser provides a vacuum that maximizes the energy extracted from the steam, and condenses the steam into feedwater to be returned to the boilers. On the left are several additional reaction stages (on two large rotors) that rotate the turbine in reverse for astern operation, with steam admitted by a separate throttle. Since ships are rarely operated in reverse, efficiency is not a priority in astern turbines, so only a few stages are used to save cost.
Blade design challenges
A major challenge facing turbine design was reducing the creep experienced by the blades. Because of the high temperatures and high stresses of operation, steam turbine materials become damaged through these mechanisms. As temperatures are increased in an effort to improve turbine efficiency, creep becomes significant. To limit creep, thermal coatings and superalloys with solid-solution strengthening and grain boundary strengthening are used in blade designs.
Protective coatings are used to reduce the thermal damage and to limit
The nickel-based blades are alloyed with aluminum and titanium to improve strength and creep resistance. The microstructure of these alloys is composed of different regions of composition. A uniform dispersion of the gamma-prime phase – a combination of nickel, aluminum, and titanium – promotes the strength and creep resistance of the blade due to the microstructure.[22]
Refractory elements such as rhenium and ruthenium can be added to the alloy to improve creep strength. The addition of these elements reduces the diffusion of the gamma prime phase, thus preserving the fatigue resistance, strength, and creep resistance.[23]
Steam supply and exhaust conditions
Turbine types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat, extracting and induction.
Condensing turbines
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines receive steam from a
Non-condensing turbines
Non-condensing turbines are most widely used for process steam applications, in which the steam will be used for additional purposes after being exhausted from the turbine. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are needed.
Reheat turbines
Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high-pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the turbine and continues its expansion. Using reheat in a cycle increases the work output from the turbine and also the expansion reaches conclusion before the steam condenses, thereby minimizing the erosion of the blades in last rows. In most of the cases, maximum number of reheats employed in a cycle is 2 as the cost of super-heating the steam negates the increase in the work output from turbine.
Extracting turbines
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled. Extracted steam results in a loss of power in the downstream stages of the turbine.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional power.
Casing or shaft arrangements
These arrangements include single casing, tandem compound and cross compound turbines. Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft are coupled to a generator. Tandem compound are used where two or more casings are directly coupled together to drive a single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement features two or more shafts not in line driving two or more generators that often operate at different speeds. A cross compound turbine is typically used for many large applications. A typical 1930s-1960s naval installation is illustrated below; this shows high- and low-pressure turbines driving a common reduction gear, with a geared cruising turbine on one high-pressure turbine.
Two-flow rotors
The moving steam imparts both a tangential and axial thrust on the turbine shaft, but the axial thrust in a simple turbine is unopposed. To maintain the correct rotor position and balancing, this force must be counteracted by an opposing force.
Principle of operation and design
An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or constant entropy process, in which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of the steam leaving the turbine. No steam turbine is truly isentropic, however, with typical isentropic efficiencies ranging from 20 to 90% based on the application of the turbine. The interior of a turbine comprises several sets of blades or buckets. One set of stationary blades is connected to the casing and one set of rotating blades is connected to the shaft. The sets intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage.
Impulse turbines
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which is converted into shaft rotation by the bucket-like shaped rotor blades, as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure or, more usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this high ratio of expansion of steam, the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades has a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly called the carry over velocity or leaving loss.
The law of moment of momentum states that the sum of the moments of external forces acting on a fluid which is temporarily occupying the control volume is equal to the net time change of angular momentum flux through the control volume.
The swirling fluid enters the control volume at radius with tangential velocity and leaves at radius with tangential velocity .
A velocity triangle paves the way for a better understanding of the relationship between the various velocities. In the adjacent figure we have:
- and are the absolute velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively.
- and are the flow velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively.
- and are the swirl velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively, in the moving reference.
- and are the relative velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively.
- is the velocity of the blade.
- is the guide vane angle and is the blade angle.
Then by the law of moment of momentum, the torque on the fluid is given by:
For an impulse steam turbine: . Therefore, the tangential force on the blades is . The work done per unit time or power developed: .
When ω is the angular velocity of the turbine, then the blade speed is . The power developed is then .
Blade efficiency
Blade efficiency () can be defined as the ratio of the work done on the blades to kinetic energy supplied to the fluid, and is given by
Stage efficiency
A stage of an impulse turbine consists of a nozzle set and a moving wheel. The stage efficiency defines a relationship between enthalpy drop in the nozzle and work done in the stage.
By the first law of thermodynamics:
Nozzle efficiency is given by , where the enthalpy (in J/Kg) of steam at the entrance of the nozzle is and the enthalpy of steam at the exit of the nozzle is .
and depicts the loss in the relative velocity due to friction as the steam flows around the blades ( for smooth blades).
The ratio of the blade speed to the absolute steam velocity at the inlet is termed the blade speed ratio .
is maximum when or, . That implies and therefore . Now (for a single stage impulse turbine).
Therefore, the maximum value of stage efficiency is obtained by putting the value of in the expression of .
We get: .
For equiangular blades, , therefore , and we get . If the friction due to the blade surface is neglected then .
Conclusions on maximum efficiency
- For a given steam velocity work done per kg of steam would be maximum when or .
- As increases, the work done on the blades reduces, but at the same time surface area of the blade reduces, therefore there are less frictional losses.
Reaction turbines
In the reaction turbine, the
Blade efficiency
Energy input to the blades in a stage:
is equal to the kinetic energy supplied to the fixed blades (f) + the kinetic energy supplied to the moving blades (m).
Or, = enthalpy drop over the fixed blades, + enthalpy drop over the moving blades, .
The effect of expansion of steam over the moving blades is to increase the relative velocity at the exit. Therefore, the relative velocity at the exit is always greater than the relative velocity at the inlet .
In terms of velocities, the enthalpy drop over the moving blades is given by:
The enthalpy drop in the fixed blades, with the assumption that the velocity of steam entering the fixed blades is equal to the velocity of steam leaving the previously moving blades is given by:
is very small and hence can be neglected. Therefore,
Assuming Parson's turbine and obtaining all the expressions we get
Therefore, the blade efficiency is given by
Condition of maximum blade efficiency
If , then
For maximum efficiency , we get
and this finally gives
Therefore, is found by putting the value of in the expression of blade efficiency
Operation and maintenance
Because of the high pressures used in the steam circuits and the materials used, steam turbines and their casings have high
During normal operation, rotor imbalance can lead to vibration, which, because of the high rotation velocities, could lead to a blade breaking away from the rotor and through the casing. To reduce this risk, considerable efforts are spent to balance the turbine. Also, turbines are run with high-quality steam: either superheated (dry) steam, or saturated steam with a high dryness fraction. This prevents the rapid impingement and erosion of the blades which occurs when condensed water is blasted onto the blades (moisture carry over). Also, liquid water entering the blades may damage the thrust bearings for the turbine shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high-quality steam, condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine.
Maintenance requirements of modern steam turbines are simple and incur low costs (typically around $0.005 per kWh);[25] their operational life often exceeds 50 years.[25]
Speed regulation
The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run up slowly to prevent damage and some applications (such as the generation of alternating current electricity) require precise speed control.[26] Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an overspeed trip, which causes the governor and throttle valves that control the flow of steam to the turbine to close. If these valves fail then the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often catastrophically. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring precision manufacture and special quality materials.
During normal operation in synchronization with the electricity network, power plants are governed with a five percent droop speed control. This means the full load speed is 100% and the no-load speed is 105%. This is required for the stable operation of the network without hunting and drop-outs of power plants. Normally the changes in speed are minor. Adjustments in power output are made by slowly raising the droop curve by increasing the spring pressure on a centrifugal governor. Generally this is a basic system requirement for all power plants because the older and newer plants have to be compatible in response to the instantaneous changes in frequency without depending on outside communication.[27]
Thermodynamics of steam turbines
The steam turbine operates on basic principles of
where
- Ẇ is the rate at which work is developed per unit time
- ṁ is the rate of mass flow through the turbine
Isentropic efficiency
To measure how well a turbine is performing we can look at its
The isentropic efficiency is found by dividing the actual work by the ideal work.[29]
where
- h3 is the specific enthalpy at state three
- h4 is the specific enthalpy at state 4 for the actual turbine
- h4s is the specific enthalpy at state 4s for the isentropic turbine
(but note that the adjacent diagram does not show state 4s: it is vertically below state 3)
Direct drive
The turbines used for electric power generation are most often directly coupled to their generators. As the generators must rotate at constant synchronous speeds according to the frequency of the electric power system, the most common speeds are 3,000 RPM for 50 Hz systems, and 3,600 RPM for 60 Hz systems. Since nuclear reactors have lower temperature limits than fossil-fired plants, with lower steam quality, the turbine generator sets may be arranged to operate at half these speeds, but with four-pole generators, to reduce erosion of turbine blades.[30]
Marine propulsion
In
The higher cost of turbines and the associated gears or generator/motor sets is offset by lower maintenance requirements and the smaller size of a turbine in comparison with a reciprocating engine of equal power, although the fuel costs are higher than those of a diesel engine because steam turbines have lower thermal efficiency. To reduce fuel costs the thermal efficiency of both types of engine have been improved over the years.
Early development
The development of steam turbine marine propulsion from 1894 to 1935 was dominated by the need to reconcile the high efficient speed of the turbine with the low efficient speed (less than 300 rpm) of the ship's propeller at an overall cost competitive with
The use of turbines in several casings exhausting steam to each other in series became standard in most subsequent marine propulsion applications, and is a form of cross-compounding. The first turbine was called the high pressure (HP) turbine, the last turbine was the low pressure (LP) turbine, and any turbine in between was an intermediate pressure (IP) turbine. A much later arrangement than Turbinia can be seen on RMS Queen Mary in Long Beach, California, launched in 1934, in which each shaft is powered by four turbines in series connected to the ends of the two input shafts of a single-reduction gearbox. They are the HP, 1st IP, 2nd IP, and LP turbines.
Cruising machinery and gearing
The quest for economy was even more important when cruising speeds were considered. Cruising speed is roughly 50% of a warship's maximum speed and 20-25% of its maximum power level. This would be a speed used on long voyages when fuel economy is desired. Although this brought the propeller speeds down to an efficient range, turbine efficiency was greatly reduced, and early turbine ships had poor cruising ranges. A solution that proved useful through most of the steam turbine propulsion era was the cruising turbine. This was an extra turbine to add even more stages, at first attached directly to one or more shafts, exhausting to a stage partway along the HP turbine, and not used at high speeds. As reduction gears became available around 1911, some ships, notably the battleship USS Nevada, had them on cruising turbines while retaining direct drive main turbines. Reduction gears allowed turbines to operate in their efficient range at a much higher speed than the shaft, but were expensive to manufacture.
Cruising turbines competed at first with reciprocating engines for fuel economy. An example of the retention of reciprocating engines on fast ships was the famous
In the Royal Navy, speed was a priority until the Battle of Jutland in mid-1916 showed that in the battlecruisers too much armour had been sacrificed in its pursuit. The British used exclusively turbine-powered warships from 1906. Because they recognized that a long cruising range would be desirable given their worldwide empire, some warships, notably the Queen Elizabeth-class battleships, were fitted with cruising turbines from 1912 onwards following earlier experimental installations.
In the US Navy, the Mahan-class destroyers, launched 1935–36, introduced double-reduction gearing. This further increased the turbine speed above the shaft speed, allowing smaller turbines than single-reduction gearing. Steam pressures and temperatures were also increasing progressively, from 300 psi (2,100 kPa)/425 °F (218 °C) [saturated steam] on the World War I-era Wickes class to 615 psi (4,240 kPa)/850 °F (454 °C) [superheated steam] on some World War II Fletcher-class destroyers and later ships.[33][34] A standard configuration emerged of an axial-flow high-pressure turbine (sometimes with a cruising turbine attached) and a double-axial-flow low-pressure turbine connected to a double-reduction gearbox. This arrangement continued throughout the steam era in the US Navy and was also used in some Royal Navy designs.[35][36] Machinery of this configuration can be seen on many preserved World War II-era warships in several countries.[37]
When US Navy warship construction resumed in the early 1950s, most surface combatants and aircraft carriers used 1,200 psi (8,300 kPa)/950 °F (510 °C) steam.[38] This continued until the end of the US Navy steam-powered warship era with the Knox-class frigates of the early 1970s. Amphibious and auxiliary ships continued to use 600 psi (4,100 kPa) steam post-World War II, with USS Iwo Jima, launched in 2001, possibly the last non-nuclear steam-powered ship built for the US Navy.
Turbo-electric drive
Although New Mexico was refitted with geared turbines in a 1931–1933 refit, the remaining turbo-electric ships retained the system throughout their careers. This system used two large steam turbine generators to drive an electric motor on each of four shafts. The system was less costly initially than reduction gears and made the ships more maneuverable in port, with the shafts able to reverse rapidly and deliver more reverse power than with most geared systems.
Some ocean liners were also built with turbo-electric drive, as were some troop transports and mass-production destroyer escorts in World War II. However, when the US designed the "treaty cruisers", beginning with USS Pensacola launched in 1927, geared turbines were used to conserve weight, and remained in use for all fast steam-powered ships thereafter.
Current usage
Since the 1980s, steam turbines have been replaced by gas turbines on fast ships and by diesel engines on other ships; exceptions are nuclear-powered ships and submarines and LNG carriers.[39] Some auxiliary ships continue to use steam propulsion.
In the U.S. Navy, the conventionally powered steam turbine is still in use on all but one of the
Today, propulsion steam turbine cycle efficiencies have yet to break 50%, yet diesel engines routinely exceed 50%, especially in marine applications.[40][41][42] Diesel power plants also have lower operating costs since fewer operators are required. Thus, conventional steam power is used in very few new ships. An exception is LNG carriers which often find it more economical to use boil-off gas with a steam turbine than to re-liquify it.
Nuclear-powered ships and submarines use a nuclear reactor to create steam for turbines. Nuclear power is often chosen where diesel power would be impractical (as in submarine applications) or the logistics of refuelling pose significant problems (for example, icebreakers). It has been estimated that the reactor fuel for the Royal Navy's Vanguard-class submarines is sufficient to last 40 circumnavigations of the globe – potentially sufficient for the vessel's entire service life. Nuclear propulsion has only been applied to a very few commercial vessels due to the expense of maintenance and the regulatory controls required on nuclear systems and fuel cycles.
Locomotives
A steam turbine locomotive engine is a steam locomotive driven by a steam turbine. The first steam turbine rail locomotive was built in 1908 for the Officine Meccaniche Miani Silvestri Grodona Comi, Milan, Italy. In 1924 Krupp built the steam turbine locomotive T18 001, operational in 1929, for Deutsche Reichsbahn.
The main advantages of a steam turbine locomotive are better rotational balance and reduced hammer blow on the track. However, a disadvantage is less flexible output power so that turbine locomotives were best suited for long-haul operations at a constant output power.[43]
Testing
British, German, other national and international test codes are used to standardize the procedures and definitions used to test steam turbines. Selection of the test code to be used is an agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, and has some significance to the design of the turbine and associated systems.
In the United States,
See also
References
Notes
- ^ Stodola 1927.
- ^ "Sir Charles Algernon Parsons". Encyclopædia Britannica. n.d. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
- ^ "Electricity Net Generation From An Electric Turbine". US EIA. March 2024.
- ^ Keyser 1992, pp. 107–124.
- ^ O'Connor & Robertson 1999.
- ^ Nag 2002, pp. 432–.
- ^ "Taqi al-Din and the First Steam Turbine, 1551 A.D." History of Science and Technology in Islam. Archived from the original on 18 February 2008.
- ^ Hassan 1976, p. 34–35.
- ^ "James Watt". steamindex.com.
- ^ Савельев Н., Сибирские механики П. М. Залесов и М. С. Лаунин, Новосибирск. 1953
- ^ Stodola & Loewenstein 1945.
- ^ a b "The Steam Turbine". Birr Castle. Archived from the original on 13 May 2010. Retrieved 10 May 2009.
- ^ "Charles Parsons 1854 – 1931". Archived from the original on 5 May 2010. Retrieved 10 May 2009.
- ^ Parsons 1911.
- ^ Giampaolo 2014, p. 9.
- ^ Stodola 2013.
- ^ "SocGen - China Losing Its Shine". documents.mx. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
- ^ Parsons 1911, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Parsons 1911, pp. 20–22.
- ^ Parsons 1911, pp. 23–25.
- ^ Tamarin 2002, p. 5–.
- ^ Bhadeshia 2003.
- ^ Latief & Kakehi 2013.
- ^ "Steam Turbines (Course No. M-3006)" (PDF). PhD Engineer. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 22 September 2011.
- ^ a b c "Technology Characterization: Steam Turbines" (PDF). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. December 2008. p. 13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 November 2012. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
- ^ Whitaker 2006, p. 35.
- ^ "Speed Droop and Power Generation. Application Note 01302" (pdf). Woodward. 1991.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Thermodynamics Steam Turbine". www.roymech.co.uk. Archived from the original on 8 January 2011.
- ^ a b Moran et al. 2010.
- ^ Leyzerovich 2005, p. 111.
- ^ Parsons 1911, pp. 26–31.
- ^ Friedman 2004, p. 23–24.
- ^ "1,500-ton destroyers in World War II". destroyerhistory.org. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013.
- ^ Friedman 2004, p. 472.
- ^ Bowie 2010.
- ^ "Steam Turbines". www.leander-project.homecall.co.uk. Archived from the original on 22 November 2013.
- ^ "Historic Naval Ships Association". Archived from the original on 22 June 2013.
- ^ Friedman 2004, p. 477.
- ^ "Mitsubishi Heavy starts construction of first Sayaendo series LNG carrier". December 2012. Archived from the original on 7 August 2014.
- ^ Deckers 2003, p. 14–15.
- ^ Leyzerovich 2002.
- ^ Takaishi, Tatsuo; Numata, Akira; Nakano, Ryouji; Sakaguchi, Katsuhiko (March 2008). "Approach to High Efficiency Diesel and Gas Engines" (PDF). Technical Review. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
- ^ Streeter 2007, p. 85.
- ^ Sanders 2004, p. 292.
Sources
- Bayar, Tildy (31 July 2014). "Global gas and steam turbine market to reach $43.5bn by 2020". Power Engineering International. Archived from the original on 30 August 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
- Bhadeshia, HKDH (2003). "Nickel Based Superalloys". University of Cambridge. Retrieved 4 September 2008.
- Bowie, David (2010). "Cruising Turbines of the Y-100 Naval Propulsion Machinery" (PDF).
- Deckers, Matthias (Summer 2003). "CFX Aids Design of World's Most Efficient Steam Turbine" (PDF). CFXUpdate (23). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2005.
- Giampaolo, Tony (2014). Gas Turbine Handbook Principles and Practices By Tony Giampaolo: Gas Turbine Handbook. Digital Designs.[permanent dead link]
- Friedman, Norman (2004). U.S. Destroyers: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-442-5.
- Hassan, Ahmad Y (1976). Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo.
- Keyser, Paul (1992). "A new look at Heron's Steam Engine". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 44 (2): 107–124. S2CID 122957344.
- Latief, Fahamsyah H; Kakehi, Koji (2013). "Effects of Re content and crystallographic orientation on creep behavior of aluminized Ni-base single crystal superalloys". Materials & Design. 49: 485–492. ISSN 0261-3069.
- Leyzerovich, Alexander S (1 August 2002). "New Benchmarks for Steam Turbine Efficiency". Power Engineering. Archived from the original on 18 September 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
- Leyzerovich, Alexander (2005). Wet-steam Turbines for Nuclear Power Plants. PennWell Books. ISBN 978-1-59370-032-4.
- Moran, Michael J; Shapiro, Howard N; ISBN 978-0-470-49590-2.
- Nag, PK (2002). Power Plant Engineering. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-07-043599-5.
- Parsons, Charles A (1911). . Cambridge University Press.
- O'Connor, JJ; Robertson, EF (1999). "Heron of Alexandria". The MacTutor History of Mathematics.
- Sanders, William P (2004). Turbine Steam Path: Mechanical Design and Manufacture. Vol. III a. PennWell. ISBN 9781628702989.
- ISBN 978-3-642-50854-7.
- Stodola, Aurel (1927). Steam and Gas Turbines: With a Supplement on The Prospects of the Thermal Prime Mover. McGraw-Hill.
- Stodola, Aurel; Loewenstein, Louis Centennial (1945). Steam and gas turbines: with a supplement on The prospects of the thermal prime mover. P Smith.
- Streeter, Tony (2007). "Testing the Limit". Steam Railway Magazine (336).
- Tamarin, Y (2002). Protective Coatings for Turbine Blades. ASM International. ISBN 978-1-61503-070-5.
- Whitaker, Jerry C (2006). AC Power Systems Handbook (Third ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8493-4034-5.
Further reading
- Cotton, KC (1998). Evaluating and Improving Steam Turbine Performance. Cotton Fact.
- Johnston, Ian (2019). "The Rise of the Brown-Curtis Turbine". In Jordan, John (ed.). Warship 2019. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. pp. 58–68. ISBN 978-1-4728-3595-6.
- Thurston, RH (1878). A History of the Growth of the Steam Engine. New York: D Appleton and Co.
- Traupel, W (1977). Thermische Turbomaschinen (in German). Springer Verlag: Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
- Waliullah, Noushad (2017). "An overview of Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) technologies and its opportunities in Bangladesh". 2017 International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Communication Engineering (ECCE). CUET. pp. 844–849. S2CID 42153522.
External links
- "Steam Turbine", The Engineer Guy [1]
- Steam Turbines: A Book of Instruction for the Adjustment and Operation of the Principal Types of this Class of Prime Movers by Hubert E Collins
- Steam Turbine Construction at Mike's Engineering Wonders Archived 2021-02-26 at the Wayback Machine
- Tutorial: "Superheated Steam"
- Flow Phenomenon in Steam Turbine Disk-Stator Cavities Channeled by Balance Holes
- Guide to the Test of a 100 K.W. De Laval Steam Turbine with an Introduction on the Principles of Design circa 1920
- Extreme Steam- Unusual Variations on The Steam Locomotive
- Interactive Simulation of 350MW Steam Turbine with Boiler developed by The University of Queensland, in Brisbane Australia
- "Super-Steam...An Amazing Story of Achievement" Popular Mechanics, August 1937