Tosks

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Tosks (Albanian: Toskët) are one of two major dialectal subgroups of Albanians (the other being the Ghegs)[1] differentiated by their cultural, linguistic, social and religious characteristics.[2][3]

Territory

Tosk may refer to the Tosk-speaking Albanian population of southern Albania and internal subgroups include the Myzeqars of Myzeqe. The Labs of Labëria (name version in Albanian: sing: Lab, pl. Lebër, also dial. sing.: Lap) and Chams of Çamëria are separate southern Albanian subgroups[4][5][6] which at times are also included in the category of Tosks due to ethno-cultural and dialectal similarities. The Arvanites of Greece and Arbëreshë of Italy are, mainly, descendants of Tosk-speaking settlers, as are the original inhabitants of the village of Mandritsa in Bulgaria. The name Toskëria itself is often used to name entire Tosk-speaking parts of Albania, in contrast to northern Gegëria.

The Tosks in Albania live indicatively south of the Shkumbin river.[7] This region is widely referred to by Albanians as Toskëri[7] and by foreigners as Toskeria.[8] The Ottoman Turkish term, used during the times when Albania was included in the empire, was Toskalık[9] meaning land of the Tosks.[7] During the late Ottoman period apart from the term Arnavudluk (Albania) being used for Albanian regions, the designation Toskalık was also used in documents by Ottomans.[10] In the 1880s, Albanians defined the wider region of Toskalık (Toskland) as encompassing the Ottoman administrative units of Ergiri (Gjirokastër), Preveza, Berat and Yanya (Ioannina) sanjaks part of Yanya vilayet (province) with Görice (Korçë), Monastir (Bitola) and Elbasan sanjaks of Monastir vilayet.[11] The wider area of Toskalık was divided into three distinct regions.[11] The first was Toskalık, the second Laplık (Labëria) being composed of the areas of Delvine (Delvinë), Avlonya (Vlorë), Tepdelen (Tepelenë), Kurules (Kurvelesh) and Ergiri (Gjirokastër).[11] The third Camlık (Chameria) encompassed the areas of Margalic (Margariti), Aydonat (Paramithi) and Filat (Filiates).[11]

Language

Main article: Tosk Albanian
A map showing Tosk speakers in crimson

The Tosks speak Tosk Albanian, one of the two main Albanian dialects.

In the late Ottoman period, the upper and middle classes of Tosk society, apart from speaking Albanian, knew Greek and some Ottoman Turkish.[12] As Albanian and Greek cultures dominated in Yanya vilayet, at home they would speak Albanian, at school in Greek and outside resort to either Albanian or Greek and much less in Ottoman Turkish due to the small number of government officials in the area.[12] The Albanian peasantry of the countryside spoke mainly the Albanian language as a mother tongue, especially if they were Muslim.[13] As Albanians were employed in all levels of government in Yanya vilayet, of the local population who had knowledge in the Albanian language could speak it during their interactions with the Ottoman authorities.[13] Over time Greek words have also been incorporated into the lexicon of the Tosk dialect.[7] Gheg and Tosk Albanians are able to understand each other.[7]

Within an independent Albania, the Albanian communist regime based the standard Albanian language mostly on Tosk Albanian. This practice has been criticized, notably by Arshi Pipa, who claimed that this decision deprived the Albanian language of its richness at the expense of the Ghegs,[14] and referred to the literary Albanian language as a "monstrosity" produced by the Tosk communist leadership which conquered anti-Communist north Albania militarily, and imposed their Tosk Albanian dialect on the Ghegs.[15] Although Albanian writers in former Yugoslavia were almost all Ghegs, they chose to write in Tosk for political reasons.[16] This change of literary language has significant political and cultural consequences because the language is the main criterion for self-identification of the Albanians.[17] Despite all efforts to unify Albanian language in some cases Ghegs from remote northern regions can not have conversation with Tosks from the further south.[18]

Religion

Initially the population of Albania was Orthodox Christian, but in the middle of the 13th century the Ghegs converted to

Orthodox Christians or Bektashis in background.[22][10]
The Orthodox are more predominant in the regions around Gjirokastër, around Leskovik, and in the Myzeqe region (which includes the areas around Fier, Kuçova and Lushnja) and in the Dangëllia region (around Përmet) while Bektashis and are more heavily concentrated around Vlora, Tepelena, Mallakastra, Pogradec and in Skrapar, Erseka and Gramsh. Other sects of Islam are present too, with Sunnis present mostly in cities and in far eastern regions (especially in Macedonia and Devoll) while there are also Halvetis in Berat. In almost all these areas, however, Christians, Bektashis and sometimes other sects of Muslims live side by side. Christians and Muslims were historically (around the time of the fall of the Ottoman Empire) almost evenly distributed in the Korça District and the area in and around the cities of Berat and Lushnja.

The Arbëreshë of Italy, who are of Tosk descent, kept their Byzantine worship but reconciled with the Catholic Church, and today have their own rite, the Italo-Albanian Catholic Church.

As a result of communist rule, most Tosks are not religious, and a largely irreligious and secular population remains prevalent in much of Southern Albania.

Culture and social organization

Tosks in their traditional costumes

The Tosks maintained substantial contacts with outside world and were more influenced by it.[23] Some authors believe Tosks are more progressive and open than Ghegs.[24] Tosks intermarried with non-Albanians more than Ghegs.[25] Nineteenth century Albanian views of the Tosks as expressed by Sami Frashëri was that unity existed with the Ghegs along with few differences of dialect and pronunciation, while in warfare Tosks were better at perseverance and resistance than Ghegs who were skilled in attack.[26]

Tosks abandoned the tribal social organization by the end of 14th century and Ottoman conquest of the territory they lived.

Sanjak of Berat who sold their agricultural produce to Italy and apart from their economic power also exercised powerful influence upon the local Ottoman administration.[11] The wealthy landowning class derived their income from lumbering, mining, farming and other smaller industries and were similar to the nobility of Europe, though on a smaller scale.[11]

Ruling as feudal lords over the peasantry, the landowning class would at times settle legal issues without resorting to usual government channels and the beys viewed themselves as patriarchs that defended and counseled their peasants.[29] Members from the landowning class would represent a peasant to Ottoman authorities while settling small disputes among the peasants in their own way.[29] In some statistics the landowner received 50-60 percent of earnings by the peasantry of whom also had to pay tax to Ottoman authorities.[29] Peasants often had little to live on and households were poor, with up to seven families at a time residing in a two or three room dwelling.[29] Ottomans outside the area viewed Tosk society as split between the classes of zalim (oppressor) and mazlum (oppressed).[29] During the Hamidian period, Tosk towns underwent slow growth of the Albanian middle class that was composed of government officials, lawyers, physicians, teachers, merchants and artisans.[29] Some middle class Albanians over time joined the beys to generate an intellectual class that worked toward a cultural and linguistic Albanian awakening.[29] At the end of 19th and beginning of 20th century many Albanians migrated to United States and almost all of them were Tosks. There was also substantial migration of Tosks to Greece, particularly its northern part.[30]

Physical anthropology

The Tosks have often been described as shorter, less slender and described as being of a darker Mediterranean type to the Ghegs.[31] The Tosks have smaller noses and rounder faces than Ghegs.[32] Some claim that this difference has been reduced because of population movement in the period after 1992.[33]

History

Pre-Ottoman and Ottoman period

There was a distinction between Ghegs and Tosks before the Ottomans appeared in Albania at the end of the 14th century.

Grand Viziers of Albanian ethnicity to serve the empire, most of them were Tosks such as Mehmed Ferid Pasha (1851-1914) of the Vlora family.[11]

By the middle of the nineteenth century Toskëria was considerably better integrated within the Ottoman system and had better connections with the wider world than its northern regional counterpart of Gegënia.[36] Despite Toskëria being integrated within the Ottoman system, the area still showed levels of regionalism.[28]

Ismail Qemali, first president and prime minister of an independent Albania

The

Berlin Congress that were against the territorial ambitions of its neighbors and for the creation of a unitary Albanian province.[40] Lacking a tribal network of the Ghegs, Tosk society instead relied on the Bektashi network to spread information and mobilise Albanians to resist any annexation by Greece of the Yanya vilayet in 1880.[41] During this time Tosks led the way in articulating Albanianism based on a national program demanding Albanian sociopolitical rights.[42]

Tosk Albanians in July 1906 were unable to have their request to sultan

Young Turk (CUP) government which had relied on Tosk and Gheg support promised them to better governance.[45]

The

Albanian revolt of 1911 and the subsequent Greçë Memorandum calling for sociopolitical rights received support from Tosk leaders who sent telegrams to Istanbul demanding autonomy and unification of four provinces: Shkodër, Kosovo, Monastir and Yanya into one province of Albania.[46] The Ottoman government seeking to quell unrest decided to negotiate with Tosk Albanians at Tepelenë on 18 August 1911 for a solution and a deal was struck promising Albanian education, linguistic and a few sociopolitical rights.[47]

Albania

In the 1920s Tosks were poverty-stricken peasants, still treated as serfs by their

Albanian Communist Party was basically established by Tosks who made up about three quarters of its membership.[49][50]

Notable Tosks

References

  1. ISBN 978-0-7656-1833-7
    . Retrieved 13 July 2013. The Albanians comprise two ethnic subgroups: the Ghegs, who generally occupy the area north of the Shkumbin river; and the Tosks, most of whom live south of the river.
  2. ISBN 978-0-549-12813-7. Retrieved 13 July 2013. There were and there remain distinct cultural and linguistic differences between Albanian Ghegs and Tosks[permanent dead link
    ]
  3. ISBN 978-1-85065-276-2
    . Retrieved 13 July 2013. the two ethnic sub-groups to which Albanians actually belong: the Ghegs in the north and the Tosks in the south... The Ghegs and Tosks differ from each other in linguistic, historical-cultural and socio-religious character.
  4. ISBN 9780198142539
    . "In fact the Liaps and Tsams claimed to be autonomous tribes, distinct and separate from the Gegs and Tosks"
  5. ISBN 9781526117021
    . "The Albanians are divided into two subgroups: southerners (Tosks, Labs and Chams) and northerners (Gegs), with a border formed by the river Shkumbin."
  6. ^ Kretsi, Georgia (2002). "The Secret Past of the Greek-Albanian Borderlands. Cham Muslim Albanians: Perspectives on a Conflict over Historical Accountability and Current Rights". Ethnologia Balkanica (6): 173. "In historical literature the Chams are thought to form one of the four Albanian tribes (the Labs, Tosks and Gegs are the other three)."
  7. ^ a b c d e Gawrych 2006, pp. 21, 23.
  8. ISBN 978-0-8108-7380-3
    . The territory of the Tosks is poetically referred to as Toskeria.
  9. ISBN 978-1-4725-1538-4
    . ... the region of southern Albania—Toskalik...
  10. ^ a b Gawrych 2006, p. 22.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Gawrych 2006, p. 23.
  12. ^ a b Gawrych 2006, p. 26.
  13. ^ a b Gawrych 2006, p. 27.
  14. ^ Canadian review of studies in nationalism: Revue canadienne des études sur le nationalisme, Volume 19. University of Prince Edward Island. 1992. p. 206. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
  15. ^ Canadian review of studies in nationalism: Revue canadienne des études sur le nationalisme, Volume 19. University of Prince Edward Island. 1992. p. 207. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
  16. ISBN 978-3-87828-106-1
    . Retrieved 15 July 2013. Although the Albanian population in Yugoslavia is almost exclusively Gheg, the Albanian writers there have chosen, for sheer political reasons, to write in Tosk
  17. ^ Telos. Telos Press. 1989. p. 1. Retrieved 16 July 2013. The political-cultural relevance of the abolition of literary Gheg with literary Tosk....Albanians identify themselves with language...
  18. ISBN 978-1-55546-166-9
    . ... some Ghegs from the most remote regions of the north cannot converse with Tosks from the extreme south.
  19. ISBN 978-1-85065-551-0
    . Retrieved 17 July 2013. Religious differences also existed before the coming of the Turks. Originally, all Albanians had belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church... Then the Ghegs in the North adopted in order to better resist the pressure of Orthodox Serbs.
  20. ^ Bourchier, James David (1911). "Albania (Balkans)" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 01 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 481–487, see page 485.
  21. ISBN 0-8223-2070-3
    . ....the sense of true separation between Catholic Albanians and Orthodox Ablanians dates only from the mid-eighteenth century.
  22. ISBN 978-0-19-996403-1
    . ... Ghegs are mostly Sunni Muslims,..., while Tosks are predominantly Bektashis and Orthodox Christians....
  23. ISBN 978-0-8133-3502-5
    . The Tosks live in southern Albania and parts of northern Greece. Because their territories were easily accessible, the Tosks developed substantial contacts with the outside world, and as a result, foreign influences were more pronounced
  24. ISBN 978-1-84511-254-7
    . The peoples to the south of the River Shkumbin (the 'Tosks', more sober and refined in nature) were more open and progressive.
  25. ISBN 978-0-313-30984-7
    . The Ghegs, who make up about two-thirds of the total, are less intermarried with non-Albanians than the Tosks,
  26. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 100.
  27. ISBN 978-0-85745-390-7
    . ...Tosks, who had abandoned the tribal system by the time of the Ottoman conquest...
  28. ^ a b Gawrych 2006, p. 28.
  29. ^ a b c d e f g Gawrych 2006, p. 24.
  30. ISBN 978-1-55546-166-9
    . Almost all of the Albanians who immigrated to the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were Tosk peasants in search of a better life. Many Tosks also immigrated to northern Greece.
  31. ISBN 978-1-84511-855-6
    . Retrieved 17 July 2013. Ghegs, who are often described as fair, are taller than Tosks, who are darker and more Mediterranean.
  32. ISBN 978-1-55546-166-9
    . The Tosk people are shorter and have rounder faces and smaller noses than the Ghegs.
  33. ISBN 978-1-86064-974-5
    . Retrieved 17 July 2013. ... Ghegs speak a slightly different dialect of the language, and are often taller and thinner than Tosks, but these traditional differences (often exaggerated in vulgar anthropology) have been much diminished by population movement in the post-communist period
  34. ISBN 978-1-85065-551-0
    . Retrieved 17 July 2013. These differences existed before appearance of Turks. Traditionally there has been the division between the Ghegs in the north and the Tosks in the south, the Shkumbi River being the line
  35. ISBN 978-975-428-242-9
    . This dichotomy intensified through time as Tosks developed strong intellectual and cultural links with Istanbul,...
  36. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 23, 28.
  37. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 46-47.
  38. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 25, 35.
  39. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 48.
  40. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 48, 60.
  41. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 64.
  42. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 70.
  43. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 138.
  44. ^ Gawrych 2006, pp. 3, 141, 150–151, 169.
  45. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 205.
  46. ^ Gawrych 2006, p. 189.
  47. ISBN 9781845112875
    .
  48. ISBN 978-1-85065-531-2
    . In the south, home of the Tosks, impoverished peasants were still treated essentially as serfs by their feudal Moslem landlords.
  49. ISBN 978-0-85745-390-7
    . The ACP was largely a creation of southern or Tosk Albanians.
  50. ISBN 978-1-86064-541-9
    . The Communist victory had realized the transference of political power from the Ghegs to the Tosks, and as around three-quarters of the membership of the ACP were Tosks,

Further reading
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