User:Montanabw/Landrace

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For specific formal breeds with "landrace" in their names, see Landrace (disambiguation).

A landrace is "a local

FAO defines a landrace or landrace breed as " a breed that has largely developed through adaptation to the natural environment and traditional production system in which it has been raised."[2] In plants, the working definition developed in 2005 is "a dynamic population(s) of a cultivated plant that has historical origin, distinct identity and lacks formal crop improvement, as well as often being genetically diverse, locally adapted and associated with traditional farming systems."[3]

As of 2005, there had not been a widely accepted definition for plant landraces,[3] and in animals, the FAO notes, "The interaction between landraces and standardized breeds has involved considerable give and take".[4]

Specimens of a landrace tend to be relatively genetically uniform, but are more diverse than members of a standardized or formal breed.

crossbreeding.[5] Landraces are distinct from ancestral wild species of modern stock, and from separate species or subspecies derived from the same ancestor as modern domestic stock. Landraces are not all derived from ancient stock largely unmodified by human breeding interests. In a number of cases, most commonly dogs and horses, domestic animals have escaped in sufficient numbers in an area to breed feral populations that, through evolutionary pressure, can form new landraces in only a few centuries. In other cases, simple failure to maintain breeding regimens can do the same.[citation needed] For example, selectively bred cultivars can become new landraces when loosely selective reproduction is applied.[6]

Increasing adoption of and reliance upon modern, purposefully selected plant strains, considered improved – "scientifically bred to be uniform and stable"[7] – has led to a reduction in biodiversity.[7][8] The majority of the genetic diversity of domesticated species lies in landraces and other traditionally used varieties,[8] a "reservoir of genetic resources".[7]

Characteristics

General features that characterize a landrace may include:

  • It is morphologically distinctive and identifiable (i.e., has particular and recognizable characteristics or properties),[3][9] yet remains "dynamic".[3]
  • It is genetically adapted to,[6][3] and has a reputation for,[9] the conditions of the local environment, including climate, disease and pests, even cultural practices.[9]
  • It is not the product of formal (governmental, organizational, or private) breeding programs,[6] and may lack systematic selection, development and improvement by breeders.[10][5][3]
  • It is maintained and fostered less deliberately than a standardized breed, with its genetic isolation principally a matter of geography acting upon whatever animals that happened to be brought by humans to a given area.[5]
  • It has a historical origin in a specific geographic area,[3] usually it will have its own local name(s),[6][9] and will often be classified according to intended purpose.[9]
  • Where yield (e.g. of a grain or fruit crop) can be measured, a landrace will show high stability of yield, even under adverse conditions, but a moderate yield level, even under carefully managed conditions.[11]
  • At the level of genetic testing, its heredity will show a degree of integrity,[9] but still some genetic heterogeneity[6] (i.e. genetic diversity)[3][12]

Not every source on the topic enumerates each of these criteria, and they may be weighted differently depending on a given source's focus (e.g., governmental regulation, biological sciences, agribusiness, anthropology and culture, environmental conservation, pet keeping and breeding, etc.). Additionally, not all cultivars agreed to be landraces exhibit all possible landrace characteristics.[3] Plant landraces have been the subject of more intensive study, and the majority of the academic literature about landraces is focused on agricultural botany, not animal husbandry. Most plant landraces are associated with traditional agricultural systems.[3]

While many landrace animals are associated with farming, other domestic animals have been put to use as modes of transportation, as

companion animals, for sporting purposes, and for other non-farming uses, so their geographic distribution may differ. For example, horse landraces are less common because human use of them for transport has meant that they have moved with people more commonly and constantly than most other domestic animals, reducing the incidence of populations locally genetically isolated for extensive periods of time.[5]

Terminology

The word landrace (literally 'country-breed')

cognates of it are found in various Germanic languages. The term was first defined (in German) by Kurt von Rümker in 1908,[11] and more clearly described (in Dutch) in 1909 by U. J. Mansholt, who wrote that landraces have better "stability of their characteristics" and "resistance capacity to tolerate adverse influences" but lower production capacity than cultivars, and are apt to change genetically when moved to another environment.[11] H. Kiessling added in 1912 that a landrace is a mixture of phenotypic forms despite relative outward uniformity, and a great adaptability to its natural and human environment.[11] The word in entered non-academic English in the early 1930s, by way of the Danish Landrace pig, a particular breed of lop-eared swine.[13]

In addition to the fact that some formal breeds have "landrace" in their names, actual landraces and standardized breeds are sometimes further confused when the word "breed" is used very broadly.[

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) defines landrace or landrace breed (treated synonymously) as "a breed that has largely developed through adaptation to the natural environment and traditional production system in which it has been raised".[14] It also defines breed expansively and in multiple ways, with a focus on treating differing senses, landrace breed and standardized breed, as equivalent for "genetic management" purposes, the focus of the FAO guideline.[14][clarification needed] It does clearly distinguish between the two concepts, however, in the main body of the guideline, referring to the "interaction between landraces and standardized breeds"),[4] and that FAO document uses "breed" to mean "the unit of conservation, i.e. the specific population of animals that is to be conserved",[clarification needed] and nothing more specific.[dubious – discuss] [4] Similarly, the Oxford English Dictionary defines landrace as "A local cultivar or animal breed that has been improved by traditional agricultural methods",[15] without specifying which of multiple, vague definitions of breed[dubious – discuss] [16] might be intended. (The definition is also at odds with some peer-reviewed material,[verification needed][dubious – discuss] in which lack of intentional improvement is considered characteristic of landraces.)[3]

A landrace native to, or produced for a long time (e.g. 100 years or longer[11]) within the agricultural system in which it is found is referred to as an autochthonous landrace, while an introduced one is termed an allochthonous landrace.[17] "Within academic agronomy, the term autochthonous landrace is sometimes used with a more specific, productivity-related definition, synthesized by A. C. Zeven from previous definitions beginning with Mansholt's; it is not often encountered outside that field.[a] These terms are most often applied to plants, with animals more often being referred to as indigenous or native.{{efn|1=Examples of references in sources to long-term local landraces of livestock include constructions such as "indigenous landraces of sheep",[18] and "Leicester Longwool sheep were bred to the native landraces of the region",[19]

Many languages do not use separate terms, like landrace and breed in English, but instead rely on extended description to convey such distinctions.[b][citation needed] The FAO notes, The distinction between breeds and ecotypes within breeds is not very objective, and generally involves cultural rather than genetic factors.[2]

The term landrace breed is sometimes encountered.[2] In pigs, some formalized breeds include "landrace" in their names,[c] but may be used more ambiguously to include actual landraces.[d]

Similar ambiguity may be encountered in the use of terms such as ancient breed, native breed (not to be confused with

indigenous breed.[citation needed] Farmers' variety, usually applied to local cultivars, or seen as intermediate between a landrace and a cultivar,[21] may also include landraces when referring to plant varieties not subjected to formal breeding programs.[6]

The term breed itself has multiple definitions and uses,[e] some of which may encompass the concept of landraces. For example, the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA) guideline provides a definition of "Breed", for "genetic management" purposes, that overlaps with many definitions of landrace, and defines "Landrace (or landrace breed)" as a type of breed.[2]

Biodiversity and conservation

Due to their adaptation to the local environment, some farmers using scientifically "improved" domesticates also continue to raise landraces, because the latter often exhibit benefits,[7] ranging from lower cost, and cultural (e.g. culinary) preference, to superior hardiness in a less-than-ideal climate, and better disease resistance.[7][8] There may be more variety-specific pluses; a plant landrace may have, e.g., lower fertilizer requirements, or something about a plant or animal product's texture, color or ease of use might be a major factor.[7][8]

Landraces are often free from many

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), though its concerns are not exclusively limited to landraces.[8]

Plant landraces

In 2005, a "working definition" of plant landraces was proposed: "a dynamic population(s) of a cultivated plant that has historical origin, distinct identity and lacks formal crop improvement, as well as often being genetically diverse, locally adapted and associated with traditional farming systems."

soil types according to the traditional peasant soil classifications, e.g. heavy or light, warm or cold, dry or wet, strong or weak. They also may be classified according to expected usage; among cereals, different landraces are used for flour, for porridge, for 'bulgur', and for malt to make beer, etc. All components of the [plant] population are adapted to local climatic conditions, cultural practices, and disease and pests."[9]

"But most important, they are genetically diverse. They are balanced

pathogens and genetically dynamic".[12]

Development

Landrace plants are grown from seeds which have not been systematically selected and marketed by seed companies, nor developed by plant breeders. The label Landraces includes all those regional

heterogeneous, but with enough characteristics in common to permit their recognition as a group.[citation needed
]

This includes all cultigens cultivated without any specific nomenclature and value. A landrace identified with a unique feature, and selected for uniformity over a period of time for maintenance of the characteristic features of the population, can evolve into a "farmers' variety", or even a modern cultivar as in many crops (for example, Cajanus cajan 'Maruti' in the case of pigeon peas).[21]

Conversely, a modern cultivar grown over time can "evolve" into a landrace, especially when self-seeded and some human selection is applied.[6]

Conservation efforts

A "significant proportion" of farmers around the world continue to grow landrace crops.[10] However, as industrialized agriculture spreads, cultivars, which are selectively bred for high yield, rapid growth, disease and drought resistance, and other commercial production values, are supplanting many landraces, putting more and more of them at risk of extinction.[citation needed]

Using Europe as an example, data collected for an agricultural study published in 2008, showed that landrace

Iberia, the Balkans, and European Russia, and dominated by species from mountainous areas.[10] Despite their incompleteness, these efforts have been described as "crucial in preventing the extinction of many of these local ecotypes".[10]

Animal landraces

One definition of a landrace applied to both plants and animals is "which has developed over a long period of time and as a result has adapted to the local natural environment in which it lives."[27] Geneticist D. Phillip Sponenberg described animal breeds as "consistent and predictable genetic entities" falling into several "classes": the landrace, the standardized breed, modern "type" breeds, industrial strains and feral populations. He describes landraces as an early stage of breed development, created by a combination of founder effect, isolation and environmental pressures. Human selection plays a role, but for end goals, not as a result of careful selection.[28]

One definition of a landrace, as applied to animals, is a biological race of [domestic] animal adapted to thrive in a specific land or locality.[29][unreliable source?] Another, applied to both plants and animals, is a variety "which has developed over a long period of time and as a result has adapted to the local natural environment in which it lives."[27]

Cats

There are various distinctive landraces of

Khadzonzo, among others. The Van cat
of modern-day Turkey is a landrace of symbolic (and disputatious) cultural value to Turks, Armenians and Kurds.

Many formal breeds have rather recently (within a century or less) been derived from landraces. Examples, often called natural breeds, include

Norwegian Forest Cat, and Siberian
, among many others.

In some cases, such as the

Turkish van breeds and their possible derivation from the Van cat
landrace, the relationships are not entirely clear.

Cattle

Examples of landrace bovines include

Randall cattle.[29]

Dogs

Dmitri Belyaev in the old Soviet Union with the silver fox, which eventually created the domesticated silver fox[32] or by the genome-wide association studies of Elaine Ostrander[33]
at the NIH.

Landrace dogs breeds have more variety in their appearance than do standardized dog breeds.

game across open tracts of hot desert, but conformation-bred individuals of the breed might not be able to chase and catch desert hares.[citation needed
]

The now extinct

Newfoundland dog.[citation needed] Another example of a North American landrace, the Carolina dog or yellow dog, developed from dogs originally from Asia;[35] it also been established now as a formal breed
).

The

Armenian Gampr dog.[citation needed
]

Goats and sheep

Some formal, selective breeds that are derived from landraces include the Dutch Landrace, Swedish Landrace and Finnish Landrace goats. The confusingly named Danish Landrace is a modern mix of three different breeds, one of which was a "Landrace"-named breed.

Horses, ponies and donkeys

Horse landraces are "local types which have become uniform through a combination of founder effect, long isolation from other populations and selection within a local environment." He further refines the definition, noting, "[t]he relative genetic uniformity of landraces results from both moderate inbreeding and from selection...a combination of natural factors and human factors, all acting in an agricultural or pastoral setting." It is rare for landraces among domestic horses to remain isolated, due to human use of horses for transportation, thus causing horses to move from one local population to another. Example of horse landraces include isolated island populations such as the Shetland pony and Icelandic horse, insular landraces in Greece and Indonesia, and, on a broader scale, New World populations derived from the founder stock of Colonial Spanish horse.[5]

The wild progenitor of the domestic horse is now extinct.[5] The Przewalski's horse, Equus ferus przewalskii, is a a wholly separate subspecies with a different number of chromosomes than domesticated horses (E. f. caballus),[36] and has never been successfully domesticated.[37]

Pigs

The

British Landrace
breed, which was established as late as 1950.

Poultry

Landrace chicken breeds include:

The

Twente Landrace
duck, are not actually landraces, though may be derived from them.

Rabbits

  • Gotland rabbit, a rare landrace of Sweden (not entirely limited to Gotland), and now a formal breed with a pedigree studbook and two color varieties
  • Mellerud rabbit, a very rare landrace of Sweden, subject to conservation but not development efforts by breeders

Notes

  1. ^ Zeven (1998) provides the following agronomic definition: "an autochthonous landrace is a variety with a high capacity to tolerate biotic and abiotic stress, resulting in a high yield stability and an intermediate yield level under a low input agricultural system."[11]
  2. race as a human classification
    .
  3. British Landrace is a formal breed, derived from earlier breeds with "landrace" names.[citation needed
    ] BPA's breed-specific usage is commonly found in various other publications.
  4. ^ One example ofgeneral and specific use in the same document, is an article in a UN FAO journal that refers to "landrace breeds" in its title, but distinguishes between formal breeds like Nguni cattle, the Boer goat and "indigenous pig breeds" on the one hand, and "indigenous sheep landraces" on the other.[18]
  5. ^ e.g. "a relatively homogenous group of animals within a species, developed and maintained by humans.";[22] "a group of organisms within a species, esp a group of domestic animals, originated and maintained by man and having a clearly defined set of characteristics";[23] "A stock of animals or plants within a species having a distinctive appearance and typically having been developed by deliberate selection.";[24] "a group of animals or plants presumably related by descent from common ancestors and visibly similar in most characters; especially : such a group differentiated from the wild type under domestication[25]

References

  1. ^ "Definition of landrace in English". OxfordDictionaries.com. Oxford University Press. 2014. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
  2. ^ a b c d In Vivo Conservation, FAO glossary, pp. xv-xx
  3. ^
    doi:10.1079/PGR200591
    .
  4. ^ a b c In Vivo Conservation, pp. 4–5
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Sponenberg, in Bowling and Ruvinsky, pp. 392–393
  6. ^
    ISBN 92-9043-444-9. {{cite book}}: |first2= has generic name (help
    )
  7. ^ a b c d e f Breton Olson, Meryl; Morris, Katlyn S.; Méndez, V. Ernesto (2012). "Cultivation of Maize Landraces by Small-scale Shade Coffee Farmers in Western El Salvador" (PDF). Agricultural Systems (111): 63–74.
  8. ^
    Internationale Weiterbildung und Entwicklung. Archived from the original
    on April 19, 2010. Retrieved August 6, 2014.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g Harlan, J. R. (1975). Crops and Man. Madison, Wisconsin: American Society of Agronomy and Crop Science Society of America.[page needed]
  10. ^
    doi:10.1017/S1479262108993138. Archived from the original on May 14, 2008. Retrieved August 6, 2014. The copy at this URL is missing the author information but provides full text otherwise; that information is available in this official online abstract
    .
  11. ^
    doi:10.1023/A:1018683119237. Abstract and first two pages are available for free access
    .
  12. ^
    doi:10.1126/science.174.4008.468
    .
  13. ^ a b "Landrace". Dictionray.com Unabridged. Random House. 2014. Retrieved August 5, 2014. Based on the Random House Dictionary.
  14. ^
    ISSN 1810-0708
    .
  15. ^ "Definition of landrace in English". OxfordDictionaries.com. Oxford University Press. 2014. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
  16. ^ "Definition of breed in English". OxfordDictionaries.com. 2014. Retrieved September 25, 2014.
  17. ^ "Section B. Landraces: B.1. Introduction". Resource Book for the Preparation of National Plans for Conservation of Crop Wild Relatives and Landraces (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2014. Retrieved August 6, 2014.
  18. ^ a b Ramsay, K.; Smuts, M.; Els, H. C. (2000). "Adding Value to South African Landrace Breeds Conservation through Utilisation" (PDF). Animal Genetic Resources Information (27). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: 9–15.
  19. ^ Simmons, Paula; Ekarius, Carol (2009) [2001]. ""Charollais"". Storey's Guide to Raising Sheep (New ed.). Storey Publishing.
  20. ^ "The British Landrace: Breed History". BritishPigs.org. British Pig Association. January 15, 2014.
  21. ^ a b Ramanandan, P. (1997). "Pigeonpea: Genetic Resources". In Nene, Y.L. (ed.). The Pigeonpea. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CAB International. pp. 89–116.
  22. ^ Staff. "breed, def 13". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2014-08-07.
  23. ^ Staff. "breed, def 6". World English Dictionary. Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2014-08-07.
  24. ^ "Breed noun". Oxford dictionaries. Retrieved 2014-08-07.
  25. ^ Staff. "Breed def 2, noun". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2014-08-07.
  26. ISBN 978-1898298724. {{cite book}}: |first2= has generic name (help)[page needed
    ]
  27. ^ a b Staff (2012). "What are land-races?". Irish Landraces. National Biodiversity Data Centre. Retrieved August 6, 2014. Cite error: The named reference "NBDC" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  28. ^ Sponenberg and Bixby, pp. 8-10
  29. ^ a b "Florida Cracker and Pineywoods Cattle". Hobby Farms. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
  30. ^
    ISBN 9780124055087
    . Retrieved 2014-08-13.
  31. ^ a b Dohner, Jan (2013-12-06). "Choosing a Livestock Guard Dog Breed, Part Two". Mother Earth News. Retrieved 2014-08-13.
  32. ^ Goldman, Jason G. "Man's new best friend? A forgotten Russian experiment in fox domestication | Guest Blog, Scientific American Blog Network". Blogs.scientificamerican.com. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
  33. ^ Ostrander, Elaine. "The NHGRI Dog Genome Project". Canine Genome Project. National Institute of Health. Retrieved July 13, 2011.
  34. ^ Ward, Andy. "Landrace vs. Purebred Scotch Collies". Old Time Farm Shepherd. Old-Time Scotch Collie Association.
  35. ^ Van Asch, Barbara last2=Zhang; Oskarsson, Mattias; Klütsch, Cornelya; Amorim, António; Savolainen, Peter (May 10, 2012). "MtDNA Analysis Confirms Early Pre‐Colombian Origins of Native American Dogs". Retrieved July 10, 2013. {{cite web}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); Missing pipe in: |first1= (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Gaddy, L. L. (2005). Biodiversity: Przewalski's Horse, Edna's Trillium, the Giant Squid, and Over 1.5 Million Other Species. p. 6.
  37. ^ "Przewalski's horse". National Zoo. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
  38. ^ Nabhan, Gary Paul (April 2008). Renewing America's Food Traditions: Saving and Savoring the Continent's Most Endangered Foods. White River Junction, Vermont: Chelsea Green. Retrieved 7 August 2014.

Sources

External links
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