Aerospace
Aerospace is a term used to collectively refer to the atmosphere and outer space. Aerospace activity is very diverse, with a multitude of commercial, industrial, and military applications. Aerospace engineering consists of aeronautics and astronautics. Aerospace organizations research, design, manufacture, operate, or maintain both aircraft and spacecraft.[1]
The beginning of space and the ending of the
Overview
In most industrial countries, the aerospace industry is a cooperation of the public and private sectors. For example, several states have a civilian
Along with these public space programs, many companies produce technical tools and components such as
. These companies are also involved in other areas of aerospace, such as the construction of aircraft.History
Modern aerospace began with Engineer George Cayley in 1799. Cayley proposed an aircraft with a "fixed wing and a horizontal and vertical tail," defining characteristics of the modern aeroplane.[3]
The 19th century saw the creation of the
War and science fiction inspired scientists and engineers like Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Wernher von Braun to achieve flight beyond the atmosphere. World War II inspired Wernher von Braun to create the V1 and V2 rockets.
The launch of
Manufacturing
Aerospace manufacturing is a high-technology industry that produces "aircraft, guided missiles, space vehicles, aircraft engines, propulsion units, and related parts".[4] Most of the industry is geared toward governmental work. For each original equipment manufacturer (OEM), the US government has assigned a Commercial and Government Entity (CAGE) code. These codes help to identify each manufacturer, repair facilities, and other critical aftermarket vendors in the aerospace industry.
In the United States, the
. As talented American employees age and retire, these manufacturers face an expanding labor shortfall. In order to supply the industrial sector with fresh workers, apprenticeship programs like the Aerospace Joint Apprenticeship Council (AJAC) collaborate with community colleges and aerospace firms in Washington state.Important locations of the civilian aerospace industry worldwide include
In the European Union, aerospace companies such as
In India,
In Russia, large aerospace companies like
The United Kingdom formerly attempted to maintain its own large aerospace industry, making its own airliners and warplanes, but it has largely turned its lot over to cooperative efforts with continental companies, and it has turned into a large import customer, too, from countries such as the United States. However, the UK has a very active aerospace sector, with major companies such as BAE Systems, supplying fully assembled aircraft, aircraft components, sub-assemblies and sub-systems to other manufacturers, both in Europe and all over the world.
Canada has formerly manufactured some of its own designs for jet warplanes, etc. (e.g. the
France has continued to make its own warplanes for its air force and navy, and Sweden continues to make its own warplanes for the Swedish Air Force—especially in support of its position as a
In the People's Republic of China, Beijing, Xi'an, Chengdu, Shanghai, Shenyang and Nanchang are major research and manufacture centers of the aerospace industry. China has developed an extensive capability to design, test and produce military aircraft, missiles and space vehicles. Despite the cancellation in 1983 of the experimental Shanghai Y-10, China is still developing its civil aerospace industry.
The
In the aerospace and defense industry, much consolidation has occurred at the end of the 20th century, going into the 21st century. Between 1988 and 2011, more than 6,068 mergers & acquisitions with a total known value of US$678 billion have been announced worldwide.[6] The largest transactions have been:
- The acquisition of United Technologies Corporationfor 30.0 bil. USD in 2018
- The acquisition of United Technologies Corporation for 16.2 bil. USD in 2011[7]
- The merger of
- The merger of McDonnell valued at 13.4 bil. USD in 1996[9]
- The acquisition of Marconi Electronic Systems, a subsidiary of GEC, by British Aerospace for 12.9 bil. USD in 1999[10] (now called: BAE Systems)
- The acquisition of Hughes Aircraft by Raytheonfor 9.5 bil. USD in 1997
Technology
Multiple
- patented by V-22, and the 12 ft (3.7 m) wingtip fold of the Boeing 777Xfor airport compatibility.
- To improve low-speed performance, a Fowler flaps that extend backward and downward were invented in the US, and used on the Lockheed Model 10 Electra while in 1943 forward-hinged leading-edge Krueger flaps were invented in Germany and later used on the Boeing 707.
- The 1927 large Propeller Research Tunnel at NACA Langley confirmed that the landing gear was a major source of drag, in 1930 the Boeing Monomail featured a retractable gear.
- The shear fastenerslike the Hi-Lok, threaded pins tightened until a collar breaks off with enough torque.
- First flown in 1935, the MQ-9 Reaper.
- At the end of World War I, piston engine power could be boosted by compressing intake air with a compressor, also compensating for decreasing air density with altitude, improved with 1930s Boeing B-17and the first pressurized airliners.
- The 1937 Lockheed Martin LMH-1continue to be developed.
- As US airlines were interested in high-altitude flying in the mid-1930s, the pressurized cabin was tested in 1937 and the Boeing 307 Stratolinerwould be the first pressurized airliner to enter commercial service.
- In 1933, Plexiglas, a transparent Acrylic plastic, was introduced in Germany and shortly before World War II, was first used for aircraft windshields as it is lighter than glass, and the bubble canopy improved fighter pilots visibility.
- In January 1930, Whittle W.1-powered Gloster E.28/39prototype flew on May 15, 1941.
- In 1935, Britain demonstrated aircraft Convair F-106.
- In the early 1940s, British Hurricane and Spitfire pilots wore high g situations; Mayo Clinic researchers developed air-filled bladders to replace water-filled bladders and in 1943 the US military began using pressure suits from the David Clark Company.
- The modern ejection seat was developed during World War II, a seat on rails ejected by rockets before deploying a parachute, which could have been enhanced by the USAF in the late 1960s as a turbojet-powered autogyro with 50 nm of range, the Kaman KSA-100 SAVER.
- In 1942, numerical control machining was conceived by machinist John T. Parsons to cut complex structures from solid blocks of alloy, rather than assembling them, improving quality, reducing weight, and saving time and cost to produce bulkheads or wing skins.
- In World War II, the German inertial navigation allowing dead reckoning without reference to landmarks or guide stars, leading to packaged IMUsfor spacecraft and aircraft.
- The UK Miles M.52 supersonic aircraft was to have an afterburner, augmenting a turbojet thrust by burning additional fuel in the nozzle, but was cancelled in 1946.
- In 1935, German aerodynamicist MiG-15, and the British de Havilland Cometin 1949.
- In 1951, the weepanti-icing fluid on propellers, wing and tail leading edges.
- In 1954, General Dynamics F-16, while the civil ARINC 429 was first used in the Boeing 757/B767 and Airbus A310in the early 1980s.
- After World War II, the initial promoter of Photovoltaic power for spacecraft, Hans K. Ziegler, was brought to the US under Operation Paperclip along Wernher von Braun and Vanguard 1 was its first application in 1958, later enhanced in space-deployable structures like the International Space Stationsolar arrays of 0.33 hectares (0.82 acres).
- To board an airliner, jet bridges are more accessible, comfortable and efficient than climbing the stairs.
- In the 1950s, to improve thrust and Pratt & Whitney GTFwith high-pressure ratio cores.
Functional safety
Functional safety relates to a part of the general safety of a system or a piece of equipment. It implies that the system or equipment can be operated properly and without causing any danger, risk, damage or injury.
Functional safety is crucial in the aerospace industry, which allows no compromises or negligence. In this respect, supervisory bodies, such as the
Spinoffs
Spinoffs refer to any technology that is a direct result of coding or products created by NASA and redesigned for an alternate purpose.[13] These technological advancements are one of the primary results of the aerospace industry, with $5.2 billion worth of revenue generated by spinoff technology, including computers and cellular devices.[13] These spinoffs have applications in a variety of different fields including medicine, transportation, energy, consumer goods, public safety and more.[13] NASA publishes an annual report called "Spinoffs", regarding many of the specific products and benefits to the aforementioned areas in an effort to highlight some of the ways funding is put to use.[14] For example, in the most recent edition of this publication, "Spinoffs 2015", endoscopes are featured as one of the medical derivations of aerospace achievement.[13] This device enables more precise and subsequently cost-effective neurosurgery by reducing complications through a minimally invasive procedure that abbreviates hospitalization.[13] "These NASA technologies are not only giving companies and entrepreneurs a competitive edge in their own industries, but are also helping to shape budding industries, such as commercial lunar landers," said Daniel Lockney.[15]
See also
- Aerodynamics
- Aeronautics
- Aerospace engineering
- Aircraft
- Astronautics
- NewSpace
- Space agencies(List of)
- Space exploration
- Spacecraft
- Wiktionary: Aviation, aerospace, and aeronautical terms
References
- ^ "Aerospace". www.cranfield.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-02-09.
- ^ "Where does space begin? - Aerospace Engineering, Aviation News, Salary, Jobs and Museums". Aerospace Engineering, Aviation News, Salary, Jobs and Museums. Archived from the original on 2015-11-17. Retrieved 2015-11-10.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-07-352939-4.
- ^ "United States Bureau of Labor Statistics". Archived from the original on 2013-04-23.
- ^ "U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Aerospace Product and Parts Manufacturing". Archived from the original on 14 August 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-04.
- ^ "Statistics on Mergers & Acquisitions (M&A) - M&A Courses | Company Valuation Courses | Mergers & Acquisitions Courses". Imaa-institute.org. Archived from the original on 2012-01-06. Retrieved 2013-09-27.
- ^ "United Technologies To Acquire Goodrich Corporation Complements And Strengthens Position In Aerospace And Defense Industry". UTC. Archived from the original on 2013-10-02. Retrieved 2013-09-27.
- Nytimes.com. 1999-06-07. Archivedfrom the original on 2013-10-02. Retrieved 2013-09-27.
- ^ [1] Archived June 15, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ [2] Archived August 25, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ James R. Asker; John Croft; Guy Norris; Graham Warwick (May 6, 2016). "Top Technologies: 'Protecting the Pilot' to 'Keeping It Together'". Aviation Week & Space Technology.
- ^ "EASA - European Aviation Safety Agency". Archived from the original on 2013-06-20. Retrieved 2013-06-03. European Aviation Safety Agency
- ^ a b c d e "Spinoff 2015" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-10-16. Retrieved 2015-03-12.
- ^ "What Are The Benefits Of Space Exploration? - Universe Today". 26 January 2015. Archived from the original on 21 March 2015.
- ^ "NASA Spinoffs Help Fight Coronavirus, Clean Pollution, Grow Food, More | NASA Spinoff". spinoff.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2022-02-10.
Further reading
- Blockley, Richard, and Wei Shyy. Encyclopedia of aerospace engineering (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2010).
- Brunton, Steven L., et al. "Data-driven aerospace engineering: reframing the industry with machine learning." AIAA Journal.. 59.8 (2021): 2820-2847. online
- Davis, Jeffrey R., Robert Johnson, and Jan Stepanek, eds. Fundamentals of aerospace medicine (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008) online.
- Mouritz, Adrian P. Introduction to aerospace materials (Elsevier, 2012) online.
- Petrescu, Relly Victoria, et al. "Modern propulsions for aerospace-a review." Journal of Aircraft and Spacecraft Technology 1.1 (2017).
- Phero, Graham C., and Kessler Sterne. "The aerospace revolution: development, intellectual property, and value." (2022). online
- Wills, Jocelyn. Tug of War: Surveillance Capitalism, Military Contracting, and the Rise of the Security State (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2017), scholarly history of MDA in Canada. online book review