Shotgun shell
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A shotgun shell, shotshell, or shell is a type of
The projectiles are traditionally made of
Shotguns have an
Other rounds include:
- Ferret rounds: rounds designed to penetrate a thin barrier (e.g. a car door) and release a gas payload.
- Bolo rounds: two large lead balls attached by a wire.
- Piranha rounds: shells full of sharp tacks.
- Dragon's breath rounds: shells full of incendiary chemicals that create a fireball/flame when discharged, and can ignite a flammable target at close range.
Most shotgun shells are designed to be fired from a smoothbore barrel, as "shot" would be spread too wide by rifling. A rifled barrel will increase the accuracy of sabot slugs, but makes it unsuitable for firing shot, as it imparts a spin to the shot cup, causing the shot cluster to disperse. A rifled slug uses rifling on the slug itself so it can be used in a smoothbore shotgun.
History
Early shotgun shells used brass cases, not unlike pistol and rifle cartridge cases of the same era. These brass shotgun hulls or cases closely resembled large rifle cartridges, in terms of both the head and primer portions of the shotgun shell, as well as in their dimensions. Card wads, made of felt, leather, and cork, as well as paperboard, were all used at various times.
Starting in the late 1870s, paper hulls began replacing brass hulls. Paper hulls remained popular for nearly a century, until the early 1960s. These shotgun shells using paper hulls were nearly always roll crimped, although fold crimping also eventually became popular. The primers on these paper hull shotgun shells also changed from the pistol primers used on the early brass shotgun shells to a primer containing both the priming charge and an anvil, unlike rifle and pistol ammunition, making the shotgun shell primer taller. Card wads, made of felt and cork, as well as paperboard, were all used at various times, gradually giving way to plastic over powder wads, with card wads, and, eventually, to all plastic wads. Starting from the early 1960s to the late 1970s, plastic hulls started replacing paper hulls for the majority of shotgun shells and by the early 1980s, plastic hulls had become universally adopted.
Typical construction
Modern shotgun shells typically consist of a plastic hull, with the base covered in a thin brass or plated steel covering. As noted previously,
The base of the shell is fairly thick to hold the large shotgun
A modern wad consists of three parts, the powder wad, the cushion, and the shot cup, which may be separate pieces or be one part. The powder wad acts as the gas seal (known as obturation), and is placed firmly over the powder; it may be a paper or plastic part. The cushion comes next, and it is designed to compress under pressure, to act as a shock absorber and minimize the deformation of the shot; it also serves to take up as much space as is needed between the powder wad and the shot. Cushions are almost universally made of plastic with crumple zones, although for game shooting in areas grazed by farm stock or wildlife biodegradable fiber wads are often preferred. The shot cup is the last part of the shell, and it serves to hold the shot together as it moves down the barrel. Shot cups have slits on the sides so that they peel open after leaving the barrel, allowing the shot to continue on in flight undisturbed. Shot cups, where used, are also almost universally plastic. The shot fills the shot cup (which must be of the correct length to hold the desired quantity of shot), and the shotgun shell is then crimped, or rolled closed.
The only known Shotgun shell using
Sizes
Standard
Gauge (number of lead balls in one pound) |
Diameter of one ball | |
---|---|---|
inch | millimetre | |
10 | 0.775 | 19.7 |
12 | 0.729 | 18.5 |
16 | 0.663 | 16.8 |
20 | 0.615 | 15.6 |
28 | 0.545 | 13.8 |
Shotgun shells are generally measured by "
For example, a shotgun is called "12-gauge" because a lead sphere that just fits the inside diameter of the barrel weighs 1⁄12 pound (38 g). This measurement comes from the time when early cannons were designated in a similar manner—a "12 pounder" would be a cannon that fired a 12-pound (5.4 kg) cannonball; inversely, an individual "12-gauge" shot would in fact be a 1⁄12 pounder. Thus, a 10-gauge shotgun has a larger-diameter barrel than a 12-gauge shotgun, which has a larger-diameter barrel than a 20-gauge shotgun, and so forth.
The most popular shotgun gauge by far is 12-gauge. The larger 10-gauge, once popular for hunting larger birds such as goose and turkey, is on the decline with the advent of the longer, "magnum" 12-gauge shells, which offer similar performance. The mid-size 20-gauge is also a very popular chambering for smaller-framed shooters who favor its reduced recoil, those hunting smaller game, and experienced trap and skeet shooters who like the additional challenge of hitting their targets with a smaller shot charge. Other less-common, but commercially available gauges are 16 and 28. Several other gauges may be encountered but are considered obsolete. The 4, 8, 24, and 32 gauge guns are collector items. There are also some shotguns measured by diameter, rather than gauge. These are the .410 (10.4mm), .380 (9mm), and .22 (5.5mm); these are correctly called ".410 bore", not ".410-gauge".
The .410 bore is the smallest shotgun size which is widely available commercially in the United States. For size comparison purposes, the .410, when measured by gauge, would be around 67- or 68-gauge (it is 67.62-gauge), The .410 is often mistakenly assigned 36-gauge. The 36 gauge had a 0.506" bore. Reloading components are still available.
Other calibers
Snake shot (AKA: bird shot, rat shot, and dust shot).
Commonly used by hikers, backpackers and campers, snake shot is ideally suited for use in revolvers and derringers, chambered for .38 Special and .357 Magnum. Snake shot may not cycle properly in semi-automatic pistols. Rifles specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot are also commonly used by farmers for pest control inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for airport and warehouse pest control.[8]
Shot shells have also been historically issued to soldiers, to be used in standard issue rifles. The
During World War II, the United States military developed the
Garden guns
Garden guns are smooth-bore firearms specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot, and are commonly used by gardeners and farmers for pest control. Garden guns are short-range weapons that can do little harm past 15 to 20 yards, and they are quiet when fired with snake shot, compared to a standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for pest control at airports, warehouses, stockyards, etc.[8]
Shotgun gauge diameter formula
The standard definition of shotgun gauge assumes that a pure lead ball is used. The following formulas relate the bore diameter dn (in inches) to the gauge n:
For example, the common bore diameter dn = 0.410 inches (.410 bore) is effectively gauge n = 67.6 .
Lead free
By 1957 the ammo industry had the capability of producing a nontoxic shot, made out of either iron or steel.[11] In 1976 the United States Fish and Wildlife Service took the first steps toward phasing out lead shot by designating steel-shot-only hunting zones for waterfowl. In the 1970s lead-free shot shell ammunition loaded with steel, bismuth, or tungsten composite pellets instead of more traditional lead-based pellets was introduced and required for Migratory Bird Hunting (Ducks & Geese). Lead shot in waterfowl hunting was banned throughout the United States in 1991.[12] [13] Due to environmental regulations, lead-loaded ammunition must be used carefully by hunters in Europe. For instance, in France, it cannot be fired in the vicinity of a pond. In fact, the laws are so complex that some hunters in Europe prefer not to risk getting into problems for firing lead pellets in the wrong places, so they opt for composite pellets in all situations. The use of lead shot is banned in Canada and the United States when hunting migratory game birds, such as ducks and geese, forcing the use of non-toxic shot in these countries for waterfowl hunting (lead shot can still legally be used in the United States for hunting game other than waterfowl). This means that manufacturers need to market new types of lead-free shotgun ammunition loaded with alternative pellets to meet environmental restrictions on the use of lead, as well as lead-based and cheaper shotshell ammunition, to remain competitive worldwide.
The
Besides pressure testing, shotshells containing steel pellets require an additional Vickers hardness test. The steel pellets used must have a hardness under 100 HV1, but, even so, steel is known to wear the barrel excessively over time if the steel pellet velocities become too high, leading to potentially harmful situations for the user. As a result, the measurement of pellet velocity is also an additional obligation for shotshells in 12-, 16-, and 20-gauges in both standard and high performance versions sold in Europe. The velocity of pellets must be below 425 m/s (1,390 ft/s), 390 m/s (1,300 ft/s) and 390 m/s (1,300 ft/s) respectively for the standard versions. Another disadvantage of steel pellets is their tendency to ricochet unpredictably after striking any hard surface. This poses a major hazard at indoor ranges or whenever metal targets or hard backstops (e.g. concrete wall vs. a dirt berm) are used. For this reason, steel shot is explicitly banned at most indoor shooting ranges. Any shooters who are considering buying ammo loaded with steel for anything other than hunting purposes should first find out if using it won't cause undue hazard to themselves and others.[citation needed]
However, data supporting the danger of firing high velocity shells loaded with steel shot causing barrel wear has not been published and the US equivalent of CIP,
Some indoor shooting ranges prohibit the use of steel shot over concern of it causing a spark when hitting an object down range and causing a fire.[citation needed]
Shot sizes
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2016) |
Shotshells are loaded with different sizes of shot depending on the target. For skeet shooting, a small shot such as a No. 8 or No. 9 would be used, because range is short and a high density pattern is desirable. Trap shooting requires longer shots, and so a larger shot, usually #7+1⁄2 is used. For hunting game, the range and penetration needed to assure a clean kill is considered. Shot loses its velocity very quickly due to its low sectional density and ballistic coefficient (see external ballistics). Small shot, like that used for skeet and trap, will have lost all appreciable energy by around 100 yards (91 m), which is why trap and skeet ranges can be located in relatively close proximity to inhabited areas with negligible risk of injury to those outside the range.
Birdshot
Birdshots are designed to be used for waterfowl and upland hunting, where the game is agile small/medium-sized birds. Their sizes are numbered similarly to the shotgun gauges—the smaller the number, the larger the shot (except in the obsolete Swedish system, in which it is reversed). Generally birdshot is just called "shot", such as "number 9 shot" or "BB shot".
To make matters more complex, there are small differences in the size of American, Standard (European), Belgian, Italian, Norwegian, Spanish, Swedish, British, and Australian shot. That is because some systems go by diameter in inches (American), some go by diameter in millimeters (European), and the British system goes by the number of lead shot per ounce. Australia has a hybrid system due to its market being flooded with a mixture of British, American, and European shells.
For American shot, a useful method for remembering the diameter of numbered shot in inches is simply to subtract the shot size from 17. The resulting answer is the diameter of the shot in hundredths of an inch. For example, #2 shot gives 17−2 = 15, meaning that the diameter of #2 shot is 15⁄100 or 0.15 in (3.8 mm). B shot is 0.170 in (4.3 mm), and sizes go up in 0.01 in (0.25 mm) increments for BB and BBB sizes.
In metric measurement, it is easy to remember that #5 shot is 3 mm; each number up or down represents a 0.25 mm change in diameter, so e.g. #7 shot is 2.5 mm.
US Size | EU Size | SW Size | UK Size | AU Size | Nominal diameter | Pellets per oz (28 g) | Quantity per lb.[14] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lead | Steel | |||||||
FF | .230" (5.84 mm) | 35 | ||||||
F | .220" (5.59 mm) | 27 | 39 | |||||
TT | .210" (5.33 mm) | |||||||
AAA | .205" (5.20 mm) | |||||||
AAA | .203" (5.16 mm) | 35 | ||||||
T | AAA | .200" (5.08 mm) | 36 | 53 | ||||
AA | .191" (4.93 mm) | 40 | ||||||
BBB | AA | .190" (4.83 mm) | 44 | 62 | 550 | |||
BB | A | .180" (4.57 mm) | 50 | 72 | 650 | |||
Air Rifle | BBBB or 2/0 |
.177" (4.50 mm) | ||||||
B | .170" (4.32 mm) | 86 | ||||||
No. 1 | BB | BB | .160" (4.06 mm) | 72 | 103 | 925 | ||
No. 1 | 7 | .158" (4.00 mm) | ||||||
No. 2 | B or No. 1 | .150" (3.81 mm) | 87 | 125 | 1120 | |||
No. 2 | 6 | .148" (3.75 mm) | ||||||
No. 3 | .140" (3.56 mm) | 108 | 158 | 1370 | ||||
No. 3 | 5 | .138" (3.50 mm) | ||||||
No. 2 | No. 2 | .134" (3.40 mm) | ||||||
No. 4 | .130" (3.30 mm) | 135 | 192 | 1720 | ||||
No. 4 | 4 | No. 3 | No. 3 | .128" (3.25 mm) | 140 | |||
No. 5 | No. 4 | No. 4 | .120" (3.05 mm) | 170 | 243 | 2180 | ||
No. 5 | 3 | .118" (3.00 mm) | ||||||
No. 6 | No. 5 | No. 5 | .110" (2.79 mm) | 225 | 315 | 2850 | ||
No. 6 | 2 | .108" (2.75 mm) | ||||||
No. 51⁄2 | No. 51⁄2 | .107" (2.72 mm) | 240 | |||||
No. 6 | No. 6 | .102" (2.59 mm) | 270 | |||||
No. 7 | .100" (2.54 mm) | 291 | 423 | |||||
No. 7 | 1 | .098" (2.50 mm) | ||||||
No. 71⁄2 | .094" (2.40 mm) | |||||||
No. 71⁄2 | No. 7 | No. 7 | .095" (2.41 mm) | 350 | 490 | 3775 | ||
No. 8 | No. 71⁄2 | .090" (2.29 mm) | 410 | 686 | 5150 | |||
No. 8 | 00 | .089" (2.25 mm) | ||||||
No. 8 | No. 8 | .087" (2.21 mm) | 472 | |||||
No. 81⁄2 | .085" (2.15 mm) | 497 | ||||||
No. 81⁄2 | .083" (2.10 mm) | |||||||
No. 9 | No. 9 | No. 9 | .080" (2.03 mm) | 585 | 892 | 7400 | ||
No. 9 | 000 | .079" (2.00 mm) | ||||||
No. 10 | .070" (1.78 mm) | 848 | ||||||
No. 10 | No. 10 | .070" (1.78 mm) | 850 | |||||
No. 10 | .069" (1.75 mm) |
Number 11 and number 12 lead shot also exists. Shot of these sizes is used in specialized shotshells designed to be fired at close range (less than four yards) for killing snakes, rats and similar-sized animals. Such shells are typically intended to be fired from handguns, particularly revolvers.[15] This type of ammunition is produced by Federal and CCI, among others.
Birdshot selection
For hunting, shot size must be chosen not only for the range, but also for the
Game | Lead/Tungsten | Steel | Choke | Gauge |
---|---|---|---|---|
Turkey | BB to 6 | 2 to 3 | Full | 10, 12, 16, 20 |
Geese | 2 to 4 | T to 3 | Full, Modified | 10, 12, 16, 20 |
Ducks, high | 2 to 4 | BB to 2 | Full, Improved Modified, Modified | 10, 12, 16, 20 |
Ducks, low | 4 to 6 | 1 to 4 | Full, Improved Modified, Modified | 10, 12, 16, 20 |
Squirrel | 4 to 6 | 2 to 4 | Full, Improved Modified, Modified | 12, 16, 20, 28, .410 |
Rabbit | 4 to 7+1⁄2 | 2 to 5 | Modified, Improved Cylinder | 12, 16, 20, 28, .410 |
Pheasant | 4 to 7+1⁄2 | 2 to 6[16] | Full, Improved Modified, Modified, Improved Cylinder | 12, 16, 20 |
Grouse Partridge | 5 to 8 | 3 to 6 | Modified, Improved Cylinder | 12, 16, 20 |
Quail, dove | 7+1⁄2 to 9 | 6 | Improved Modified, Modified, Improved Cylinder | 12, 16, 12, 28 |
Rail, Snipe, Woodcock | 7+1⁄2 to 9 | 6 | Modified, Improved Cylinder | 12, 16, 20 |
Buckshot
Larger sizes of shot, large enough that they must be carefully packed into the shell rather than simply dumped or poured in, are called "buckshot" or just "buck". Buckshot is used for hunting medium to large game, as a tactical round for law enforcement and military personnel, and for personal self-defense. Buckshot size is most commonly designated by a series of numbers and letters, with smaller numbers indicating larger shot. Sizes larger than "0" are designated by multiple zeros. "00" (usually pronounced "double-aught" in North American English) is the most commonly sold size.
The British system for designating buckshot size is based on the amount of shot per ounce. The sizes are LG (large grape – from grapeshot derived from musket shooting), MG (medium grape), and SG (small grape). For smaller game, SSG shot is half the weight of SG, SSSG shot is half the weight of SSG, SSSSG shot is half the weight of SSSG, and so on. The Australian system is similar, except that it has 00-SG, a small-game shell filled with 00 buckshot.
Loads of 12-gauge 00 buckshot are commonly available in cartridges holding from 8 (eight) to 18 (eighteen) pellets in standard shell lengths (2+3⁄4 inches, 3 inches, and 3+1⁄2). Reduced-recoil 00 buckshot shells are often used as tactical and self-defense rounds, minimizing shooter stress and improving the speed of follow-up shots.
US Size | UK Size | AU Size | Nominal diameter | Pellets/oz (28 g) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lead | Steel | ||||
Tri-Ball 12 [12 Gauge] | 0.60" (15.2 mm) | 1.4 | |||
Tri-Ball 20 [20 Gauge] | 0.52" (13.2 mm) | 2.1 | |||
#0000 Buck |
.375"[17] (9.525 mm) | ~5.6 | |||
#000 Buck |
LG (Larger Grape) | .36" (9.1 mm) | 6.2 | ||
MG (Medium Grape) | .346" (8.79 mm) | 7 | |||
SG (Small Grape) | .332" (8.44 mm) | 8 | |||
#00 Buck |
00-SG | .330" (8.38 mm) | 8 | ||
#0 Buck |
.32" (8.1 mm) | 9 | |||
#1 Buck | .30" (7.6 mm) | 11 | |||
Special SG (Special Small Grape) | .298" (7.57 mm) | 11 | |||
#2 Buck | SSG (Small Small Grape) | .27" (6.9 mm) | 14 | ||
SSG | .269" (6.83 mm) | 15 | |||
#3 Buck | .25" (6.4 mm) | 18 | |||
SSSG | .244" (6.3 mm) | 20 | |||
#4 Buck | .240" (6.10 mm) | 21 | |||
SSSSG | .227 (5.77 mm) | 25 | |||
F | .22" (5.59 mm) | 27 | 39 | ||
SSSSS or AAAA |
.213 (5.41 mm) | 30 | |||
AAA | .203" (5.16 mm) | 35 | |||
T | .200" (5.08 mm) | 36 | 53 |
Spread and patterning
Most modern sporting shotguns have interchangeable choke tubes to allow the shooter to change the spread of shot that comes out of the gun. In some cases, it is not practical to do this; the gun might have fixed choke, or a shooter firing at receding targets may want to fire a wide pattern immediately followed by a narrower pattern out of a single barrelled shotgun. The spread of the shot can also be altered by changing the characteristics of the shell.
Narrower patterns
A buffering material, such as granulated plastic,
Wider patterns
Shooting the softest possible shot will result in more shot deformation and a wider pattern. This is often the case with cheap ammunition, as the lead used will have minimal alloying elements such as antimony and be very soft. Spreader wads are wads that have a small plastic or paper insert in the middle of the shot cup, usually a cylinder or "X" cross-section. When the shot exits the barrel, the insert helps to push the shot out from the center, opening up the pattern. Often these result in inconsistent performance, though modern designs are doing much better than the traditional improvised solutions. Intentionally deformed shot (hammered into ellipsoidal shape) or cubical shot will also result in a wider pattern, much wider than spherical shot, with more consistency than spreader wads. Spreader wads and non-spherical shot are disallowed in some competitions. Hunting loads that use either spreaders or non-spherical shot are usually called "brush loads", and are favored for hunting in areas where dense cover keeps shot distances very short.
Spread
Most shotgun shells contain multiple pellets in order to increase the likelihood of a target being hit. A shotgun's shot spread refers to the two-dimensional pattern that these projectiles (or shot) leave behind on a target.[15] Another less important dimension of spread concerns the length of the in-flight shot string from the leading pellet to the trailing one. The use of multiple pellets is especially useful for hunting small game such as birds, rabbits, and other animals that fly or move quickly and can unpredictably change their direction of travel. However, some shotgun shells only contain one metal shot, known as a slug, for hunting large game such as deer.
As the shot leaves the barrel upon firing, the three-dimensional shot string is close together. But as the shot moves farther away, the individual pellets increasingly spread out and disperse. Because of this, the effective range of a shotgun, when firing a multitude of shot, is limited to approximately 20 to 50 m (22 to 55 yd). To control this effect, shooters may use a constriction within the barrel of a shotgun called a choke. The choke, whether selectable or fixed within a barrel, effectively reduces the diameter of the end of the barrel, forcing the shot even closer together as it leaves the barrel, thereby increasing the effective range. The tighter the choke, the narrower the end of the barrel. Consequently, the effective range of a shotgun is increased with a tighter choke, as the shot column is held tighter over longer ranges. Hunters or target shooters can install several types of chokes, on guns having selectable chokes, depending on the range at which their intended targets will be located. For fixed choke shotguns, different shotguns or barrels are often selected for the intended hunting application at hand. From tightest to loosest, the various choke sizes are: full choke, improved modified, modified, improved cylinder, skeet, and cylinder bore.[21]
A hunter who intends to hunt an animal such as
For older shotguns having only one fixed choke, intended primarily for equally likely use against rabbits, squirrels, quail, doves, and pheasant, an often-chosen choke is the improved cylinder, in a 28 inches (710 mm) barrel, making the shotgun suitable for use as a general all-round hunting shotgun, without having excess weight. Shotguns having fixed chokes intended for geese, in contrast, are often found with full choke barrels, in longer lengths, and are much heavier, being intended for fixed use within a blind against distant targets. Defensive shotguns with fixed chokes generally have a cylinder bore choke. Likewise, shotguns intended primarily for use with slugs invariably also are found with a choke that is a cylinder bore.
Dram equivalence
"Dram" equivalence is sometimes still used as a measure of the powder charge power in a shotgun shell. Today, it is an anachronistic equivalence that represents the equivalent power of a shotgun shell containing this equivalent amount of black-powder measured in drams avoirdupois.[22] A dram in the avoirdupois system is the mass of 1⁄256 pound or 1⁄16 ounce or 27.3 grains. The reasoning behind this archaic equivalence is that when smokeless powder first came out, some method of establishing an equivalence with common shotgun shell loads was needed in order to sell a box of shotgun shells. For example, a shotgun shell containing a 3 or 3 1/2 dram load of black-powder was a common hunting field load, and a heavy full power load would have contained about a 4 to 4-1/2 dram load, whereas a shotgun shell containing only a 2 dram load of black-powder was a common target practice load. A hunter looking for a field or full power load familiar with black-powder shotgun loads would have known exactly what the equivalence of the shotgun shells would have been in the newly introduced smokeless powder. Today, however, this represents a poorly understood equivalence of the powder charge power in a shotgun shell. To further complicate matters, "dram" equivalence was only defined for 12 gauge shotgun shells, and only for lead shot, although it has often been used for describing other gauges of shells, and even steel shot loaded shells. Furthermore, "dram" equivalence only came around about 15 years after smokeless powder had been introduced, long after the need for an equivalence had started to fade, and actual black-powder loaded shotshells had largely vanished. In practice, "dram" equivalence today most commonly equates just to a velocity rating equivalence in fps (feet-per-second), while assuming lead shot.
A secondary impact of this equivalence was that common shotgun shells needed to stay the same size, physically, e.g., 2-1/2 or 2-3/4-inch shells, in order to be used in pre-existing shotguns when smokeless powder started being used to load shotgun shells in the place of black-powder. As smokeless powder did not have to be loaded in the same volume as black-powder to achieve the same power, being more powerful, the volumes of wads had to increase, to fill the shotgun shell enough to permit proper crimps still to be made. Initially, this meant that increased numbers of over powder card wads had to be stacked to achieve the same stack-up length. Eventually, this also led to the introduction of one-piece plastic wads in the late 1950s through the early 1960s, to add additional wad volumes, in order to maintain the same overall shotgun shell length.
Dram equivalence has no bearing on the reloading of shotgun shells with smokeless powder; loading a shotgun shell with an equivalent dram weight of smokeless powder would cause a shotgun to explode. It only has an equivalence in the reloading of shotgun shells with black powder.
See also
- Gauges
- Breaching round
- Lead shot
- Snake shot
- 3D printedshotgun slug as a politically motivated demonstration of its possibility
- Shotgun slug
- Shrapnel shell
- Rifle cartridge
References
- ^ Siler, Wes. "What's Inside A Shotgun Shell And Why". Gizmodo. Retrieved 2018-01-20.
- ^ "USGS National Wildlife Health Center - Lead Poisoning". www.nwhc.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2018-01-20.
- ^ "Shotgun Slugs".
- ^ "Shotgun Shells Explained - Types Of Ammo (Birdshot, Buckshot, Slugs)". 25 January 2016.
- ^ a b "Shotgun". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-04-26.
- ^ "Shotshell type ammunition usable in magazine-fed firearms, and methods of manufacturing such shotshell type ammunition".
- ^ Reed, C.K. & C.A. Reed (1914). Guide to taxidermy. Worcester, Mass., C.K. Reed. pp. 22–23.
- ^ a b Eger, Christopher (28 July 2013). "Marlin 25MG Garden Gun". Marlin Firearms Forum. Outdoor Hub LLC. Archived from the original on 2016-09-18. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
- ^ http://www.mcpheetersantiquemilitaria.com/06_ammunition/06_item_058.htm .45/70 FORAGER CARTRIDGES AND SHOT FILLED GUARD CARTRIDGES - SCARCE INDIAN WAR ERA ISSUE CARTRIDGES
- ^ .45-70 Forager round, picture and information.
- ^ "The American Hunter Still Balks at Switching from Lead to Steel Shot".
- ^ "Lead ammunition: Toxic to wildlife, people and the environment | The Humane Society of the United States". Archived from the original on 2019-01-14.
- ^ "News Releases - U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service".
- ^ Tungsten shot table Archived 2008-07-04 at the Wayback Machine, used with permission.
- ^ a b Doyle, Jeffrey Scott. "Shotgun Pattern Testing". FirearmsID.com. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
- ^ "After bagging 300 birds, researchers declare that No. 2 is best steel shot size for roosters" by Craig Bihrle. Reprinted with permission.
- ^ "Paraklese Technologies LLC". www.paraklesetechnologies.com. Retrieved 2018-06-17.
- ^ ISBN 9788131226841.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-06-013213-2.
A shotshell which has been cut partially through forward of the head in hope of reducing shot dispersion.
- ^ Julian Sommerville Hatcher (1935). Textbook of firearms investigation, identification and evidence: together with the Textbook of pistols and revolvers, Volume 3. Small-arms technical publishing company. p. 61.
- ^ "Shot spread". International Hunter Education Association. Homestudy.ihea.com. 2002. Archived from the original on July 23, 2016. Retrieved 2010-05-13.
- ISBN 978-1-59921-330-9. Retrieved 1 July 2012.
External links
- Goodwyn, Kendall W. (October 1951). "How They Make Shotgun Shells". Popular Science Monthly. 159 (4): 170–174.