Magnesium
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Magnesium | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Pronunciation | /mæɡˈniːziəm/ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Appearance | shiny grey solid | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Mg) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Magnesium in the periodic table | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Heat of vaporization | 128 kJ/mol | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Molar heat capacity | 24.869[4] J/(mol·K) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vapor pressure
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Atomic properties | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Discovery | Joseph Black (1755[11]) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
First isolation | Humphry Davy (1808[11]) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Isotopes of magnesium | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Magnesium is a
In the
This element is the eleventh most abundant element by mass in the
Characteristics
Physical properties
Elemental magnesium is a gray-white lightweight metal, two-thirds the density of aluminium. Magnesium has the lowest melting (923 K (650 °C)) and the lowest boiling point (1,363 K (1,090 °C)) of all the alkaline earth metals.[16]
Pure polycrystalline magnesium is brittle and easily fractures along shear bands. It becomes much more malleable when alloyed with small amounts of other metals, such as 1% aluminium.[17] The malleability of polycrystalline magnesium can also be significantly improved by reducing its grain size to ca. 1 micron or less.[18]
When finely powdered, magnesium reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas:
- Mg(s) + 2H2O(g) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) + 1203.6 kJ/mol
However, this reaction is much less dramatic than the reactions of the alkali metals with water, because the magnesium hydroxide builds up on the surface of the magnesium metal and inhibits further reaction.[19]
Chemical properties
General chemistry
It
Direct reaction of magnesium with air or oxygen at ambient pressure forms only the "normal" oxide MgO. However, this oxide may be combined with hydrogen peroxide to form magnesium peroxide, MgO2, and at low temperature the peroxide may be further reacted with ozone to form magnesium superoxide Mg(O2)2.[21]
Magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, though it reacts much more slowly than calcium, a similar group 2 metal.[20] When submerged in water, hydrogen bubbles form slowly on the surface of the metal; this reaction happens much more rapidly with powdered magnesium.[20] The reaction also occurs faster with higher temperatures (see § Safety precautions). Magnesium's reversible reaction with water can be harnessed to store energy and run a magnesium-based engine. Magnesium also reacts exothermically with most acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), producing magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas, similar to the HCl reaction with aluminium, zinc, and many other metals.[22]
Flammability
Magnesium is highly
Magnesium may also be used as an igniter for thermite, a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide powder that ignites only at a very high temperature.
Organic chemistry
Organomagnesium compounds are widespread in
A prominent organomagnesium reagent beyond Grignard reagents is magnesium anthracene, with magnesium forming a 1,4-bridge over the central ring. It is used as a source of highly active magnesium. The related butadiene-magnesium adduct serves as a source for the butadiene dianion.
Magnesium in organic chemistry also appears as low valent magnesium compounds, primarily with the magnesium forming diatomic ions in the +1 oxidation state but more recently also with zero oxidation state or a mixture of +1 and zero states.[25] Such compounds find synthetic application as reducing agents and sources of nucleophilic metal atoms.
Source of light
When burning in air, magnesium produces a brilliant white light that includes strong ultraviolet wavelengths. Magnesium powder (flash powder) was used for subject illumination in the early days of photography.[26][27] Later, magnesium filament was used in electrically ignited single-use photography flashbulbs. Magnesium powder is used in fireworks and marine flares where a brilliant white light is required. It was also used for various theatrical effects,[28] such as lightning,[29] pistol flashes,[30] and supernatural appearances.[31]
Detection in solution
The presence of magnesium ions can be detected by the addition of
Azo violet dye can also be used, turning deep blue in the presence of an alkaline solution of magnesium salt. The color is due to the adsorption of azo violet by Mg(OH)2.
Occurrence
Magnesium is the eighth-most-abundant element in the Earth's crust by mass and tied in seventh place with
, and in mineral waters, where magnesium ion is soluble.Although magnesium is found in more than 60 minerals, only dolomite, magnesite, brucite, carnallite, talc, and olivine are of commercial importance.
The Mg2+
- MgCl
2 + Ca(OH)
2 → Mg(OH)
2 + CaCl
2
Magnesium hydroxide (brucite) is insoluble in water and can be filtered out and reacted with hydrochloric acid to produce concentrated magnesium chloride.
- Mg(OH)
2 + 2 HCl → MgCl
2 + 2 H
2O
From magnesium chloride, electrolysis produces magnesium.
Forms
Alloys
As of 2013, magnesium alloys consumption was less than one million tonnes per year, compared with 50 million tonnes of aluminium alloys. Their use has been historically limited by the tendency of Mg alloys to corrode,[32] creep at high temperatures, and combust.[33]
Corrosion
In magnesium alloys, the presence of
High-temperature creep and flammability
Magnesium's tendency to
Compounds
Magnesium forms a variety of compounds important to industry and biology, including
Isotopes
Magnesium has three stable isotopes: 24
Mg, 25
Mg and 26
Mg. All are present in significant amounts in nature (see table of isotopes above). About 79% of Mg is 24
Mg. The isotope 28
Mg is radioactive and in the 1950s to 1970s was produced by several nuclear power plants for use in scientific experiments. This isotope has a relatively short half-life (21 hours) and its use was limited by shipping times.
The nuclide 26
Mg has found application in
Al had decayed. These are among the oldest objects in the Solar System
It is conventional to plot 26
Mg/24
Mg against an Al/Mg ratio. In an isochron dating plot, the Al/Mg ratio plotted is 27
Al/24
Mg. The slope of the isochron has no age significance, but indicates the initial 26
Al/27
Al ratio in the sample at the time when the systems were separated from a common reservoir.
Production
World production was approximately 1,100 kt in 2017, with the bulk being produced in China (930 kt) and Russia (60 kt).[37] The United States was in the 20th century the major world supplier of this metal, supplying 45% of world production even as recently as 1995. Since the Chinese mastery of the Pidgeon process the US market share is at 7%, with a single US producer left: US Magnesium, a Renco Group company in Utah born from now-defunct Magcorp.[38]
In September 2021, China took steps to reduce production of magnesium as a result of a government initiative to reduce energy availability for manufacturing industries, leading to a significant price increase.[39]
Pidgeon process
China is almost completely reliant on the silicothermic Pidgeon process (the reduction of the oxide at high temperatures with silicon, often provided by a ferrosilicon alloy in which the iron is but a spectator in the reactions) to obtain the metal.[40] The process can also be carried out with carbon at approx 2300 °C:
- 2MgO
(s) + Si
(s) + 2CaO
(s) → 2Mg
(g) + Ca
2SiO
4(s) - MgO
(s) + C
(s) → Mg
(g) + CO
(g)
Dow process
In the United States, magnesium is obtained principally with the Dow process, by
ions is first treated with lime (calcium oxide) and the precipitated magnesium hydroxide
- Mg2+
(aq) + CaO(s) + H
2O(l) → Ca2+
(aq) + Mg(OH)
2(s)
The hydroxide is then converted to magnesium chloride by treating the hydroxide with hydrochloric acid and heating of the product to eliminate water:
- Mg(OH)
2(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl
2(aq) + 2H
2O(l)
The salt is then electrolyzed in the molten state. At the cathode, the Mg2+
ion is reduced by two electrons to magnesium metal:
- Mg2+
+ 2
e−
→ Mg
At the anode, each pair of Cl−
ions is oxidized to chlorine gas, releasing two electrons to complete the circuit:
- 2Cl−
→ Cl
2(g) + 2
e−
YSZ process
A new process, solid oxide membrane technology, involves the electrolytic reduction of MgO. At the cathode, Mg2+
ion is reduced by two electrons to magnesium metal. The electrolyte is yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ). The anode is a liquid metal. At the YSZ/liquid metal anode O2−
is oxidized. A layer of graphite borders the liquid metal anode, and at this interface carbon and oxygen react to form carbon monoxide. When silver is used as the liquid metal anode, there is no reductant carbon or hydrogen needed, and only oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.[41] It has been reported that this method provides a 40% reduction in cost per pound over the electrolytic reduction method.[42]
History
The name magnesium originates from the Greek word for locations related to the tribe of the Magnetes, either a district in Thessaly called Magnesia[43] or Magnesia ad Sipylum, now in Turkey.[44] It is related to magnetite and manganese, which also originated from this area, and required differentiation as separate substances. See manganese for this history.
In 1618, a farmer at Epsom in England attempted to give his cows water from a local well. The cows refused to drink because of the water's bitter taste, but the farmer noticed that the water seemed to heal scratches and rashes. The substance obtained by evaporating the water became known as Epsom salts and its fame spread.[45] It was eventually recognized as hydrated magnesium sulfate, MgSO
4·7 H
2O.[citation needed]
The metal itself was first isolated by
Uses
Magnesium metal
Magnesium is the third-most-commonly-used structural metal, following
Magnesium is used in lightweight materials and alloys. For example, when infused with silicon carbide nanoparticles, it has extremely high specific strength.[50]
Historically, magnesium was one of the main aerospace construction metals and was used for German military aircraft as early as World War I and extensively for German aircraft in World War II. The Germans coined the name "Elektron" for magnesium alloy, a term which is still used today. In the commercial aerospace industry, magnesium was generally restricted to engine-related components, due to fire and corrosion hazards. Magnesium alloy use in aerospace is increasing in the 21st century, driven by the importance of fuel economy.[51] Recent developments in metallurgy and manufacturing have allowed for the potential for magnesium alloys to act as replacements for aluminium and steel alloys in certain applications.[52][53]
Aircraft
- Wright R-3350 Duplex Cyclone aviation engine. This presented a serious problem for the earliest models of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress heavy bomber when an in-flight engine fire ignited the engine crankcase. The resulting combustion was as hot as 5,600 °F (3,100 °C) and could sever the wing spar from the fuselage.[54][55][56]
Automotive
- Mercedes-Benz used the alloy Elektron in the bodywork of an early model Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR; these cars competed in the 1955 World Sportscar Championship including a win at the Mille Miglia, and at Le Mans where one was involved in the 1955 Le Mans disaster when spectators were showered with burning fragments of elektron.[57]
- Porsche used magnesium alloy frames in the 917/053 that won Le Mans in 1971, and continues to use magnesium alloys for its engine blocks due to the weight advantage.[58]
- Volkswagen Group has used magnesium in its engine components for many years.[59]
- paddle shifters.[60]
- BMW used magnesium alloy blocks in their N52 engine, including an aluminium alloy insert for the cylinder walls and cooling jackets surrounded by a high-temperature magnesium alloy AJ62A. The engine was used worldwide between 2005 and 2011 in various 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7 series models; as well as the Z4, X1, X3, and X5.[61]
- Z06.[62]
Both AJ62A and AE44 are recent developments in high-temperature low-creep magnesium alloys. The general strategy for such alloys is to form intermetallic precipitates at the grain boundaries, for example by adding mischmetal or calcium.[63]
Electronics
Because of low density and good mechanical and electrical properties, magnesium is used for manufacturing of mobile phones, laptop and
Magnesium materials in medicine
Recent research promises a high development potential of magnesium materials as resorbable implant material (e.g. as stent) for the human body.[66][67] Common magnesium alloy elements are calcium and zinc,[68] but also rare earth and silver are investigated.[69] The biodegradable behavior of magnesium is a decisive advantage when used as an implant material to be used for a limited period of time, as it would dissolve without risk after a certain period of time. This would eliminate the risks and costs of an operation to remove the implant.[70]
Other
Magnesium, being readily available and relatively nontoxic, has a variety of uses:
- Magnesium is flammable, burning at a temperature of approximately 3,100 °C (3,370 K; 5,610 °F),pocket knifeand flint to create sparks that ignite the shavings
- In the form of turnings or ribbons, to prepare Grignard reagents, which are useful in organic synthesis.[citation needed]
- As an additive agent in conventional propellants and the production of nodular graphite in cast iron.[citation needed]
- As a reducing agent to separate uranium and other metals from their salts.[73]
- As a sacrificial (galvanic) anode to protect boats, underground tanks, pipelines, buried structures, and water heaters.[citation needed]
- Alloyed with zinc to produce the zinc sheet used in photoengraving plates in the printing industry, dry-cell battery walls, and roofing.[48]
- As a metal, this element's principal use is as an alloying additive to aluminium with these aluminium-magnesium alloys being used mainly for beverage cans, sports equipment such as golf clubs, fishing reels, and archery bows and arrows.[citation needed]
- Specialty, high-grade car wheels of magnesium alloy are called "mag wheels", although the term is often misapplied to aluminium wheels. Many car and aircraft manufacturers have made engine and body parts from magnesium.[citation needed]
- Magnesium batteries have been commercialized as primary batteries, and are an active topic of research for rechargeable batteries.[74]
Compounds
Magnesium compounds, primarily
Magnesium hydride is under investigation as a way to store hydrogen.[citation needed]
Magnesium reacts with haloalkanes to give Grignard reagents, which are used for a wide variety of organic reactions forming carbon–carbon bonds.[76]
Magnesium salts are included in various
Magnesium sulfite is used in the manufacture of paper (sulfite process).[citation needed]
Magnesium phosphate is used to fireproof wood used in construction.[citation needed]
Magnesium hexafluorosilicate is used for moth-proofing textiles.[citation needed]
Biological roles
Mechanism of action
The important interaction between
Nutrition
Diet
Dietary recommendations
In the
Supplementation
Numerous
Metabolism
An adult body has 22–26 grams of magnesium,
Detection in serum and plasma
Magnesium status may be assessed by measuring serum and erythrocyte magnesium concentrations coupled with urinary and fecal magnesium content, but intravenous magnesium loading tests are more accurate and practical.[86] A retention of 20% or more of the injected amount indicates deficiency.[87] As of 2004, no biomarker has been established for magnesium.[88]
Magnesium concentrations in plasma or serum may be monitored for efficacy and safety in those receiving the drug therapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims, or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdose. The newborn children of mothers who received parenteral magnesium sulfate during labor may exhibit toxicity with normal serum magnesium levels.[89]
Deficiency
Low plasma magnesium (
Therapy
- Intravenous magnesium is recommended by the ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death for patients with ventricular arrhythmia associated with torsades de pointes who present with long QT syndrome; and for the treatment of patients with digoxin induced arrhythmias.[93]
- Intravenous magnesium sulfate is used for the management of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia.[94][95]
- Hypomagnesemia, including that caused by alcoholism, is reversible by oral or parenteral magnesium administration depending on the degree of deficiency.[96]
- There is limited evidence that magnesium supplementation may play a role in the prevention and treatment of migraine.[97]
Sorted by type of magnesium salt, other therapeutic applications include:
- Magnesium sulfate, as the heptahydrate called Epsom salts, is used as bath salts, a laxative, and a highly soluble fertilizer.[98]
- .
- ascorbate and citrateare all used as oral magnesium supplements.
- Magnesium borate, magnesium salicylate, and magnesium sulfate are used as antiseptics.
- Magnesium bromide is used as a mild sedative (this action is due to the bromide, not the magnesium).
- powder with lubricating properties. In pharmaceutical technology, it is used in pharmacological manufacture to prevent tabletsfrom sticking to the equipment while compressing the ingredients into tablet form.
- Magnesium carbonate powder is used by athletes such as gymnasts, weightlifters, and climbers to eliminate palm sweat, prevent sticking, and improve the grip on gymnastic apparatus, lifting bars, and climbing rocks.
Overdose
Overdose from dietary sources alone is unlikely because excess magnesium in the blood is promptly filtered by the kidneys,[90] and overdose is more likely in the presence of impaired renal function. In spite of this, megadose therapy has caused death in a young child,[99] and severe hypermagnesemia in a woman[100] and a young girl[101] who had healthy kidneys. The most common symptoms of overdose are
Function in plants
, to the soil.Safety precautions
Hazards | |
---|---|
GHS labelling: | |
Danger | |
H228, H251, H261 | |
P210, P231, P235, P410, P422[104] | |
NFPA 704 (fire diamond) |
Magnesium metal and its alloys can be explosive hazards; they are highly flammable in their pure form when molten or in powder or ribbon form. Burning or molten magnesium reacts violently with water. When working with powdered magnesium,
Magnesium is capable of reducing
- Mg(s) + 2H
2O(l) → Mg(OH)
2(s) + H
2(g)
Therefore, water cannot extinguish magnesium fires. The hydrogen gas produced intensifies the fire. Dry sand is an effective smothering agent, but only on relatively level and flat surfaces.
Magnesium reacts with carbon dioxide exothermically to form magnesium oxide and carbon:[108]
- 2Mg(s) + CO
2(g) → 2MgO(s) + C(s)
Hence, carbon dioxide fuels rather than extinguishes magnesium fires.
Burning magnesium can be quenched by using a Class D dry chemical fire extinguisher, or by covering the fire with sand or magnesium foundry flux to remove its air source.[109]
See also
Notes
- ^ The thermal expansion is anisotropic: the parameters (at 20 °C) for each crystal axis are αa = 25.31×10−6/K, αc = 27.03×10−6/K, and αaverage = αV/3 = 25.91×10−6/K.[3]
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There is a strong body of evidence demonstrating a relationship between magnesium status and migraine. Magnesium likely plays a role in migraine development at a biochemical level, but the role of oral magnesium supplementation in migraine prophylaxis and treatment remains to be fully elucidated. The strength of evidence supporting oral magnesium supplementation is limited at this time.
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Cited sources
- Rumble, John R., ed. (2018). ISBN 978-1-1385-6163-2.
External links
- Magnesium at The Periodic Table of Videos(University of Nottingham)
- Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Magnesium
- "Magnesium – a versatile and often overlooked element: new perspectives with a focus on chronic kidney disease". Clin Kidney J. 5 (Suppl 1). February 2012. Archived from the original on 9 June 2013.