Hunting

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Bushmen bowhunting for bushmeat in Botswana

Hunting is the

nuisance animals that damage crops/livestock/poultry or spread diseases (see varminting), for trade/tourism (see safari), or for ecological conservation against overpopulation and invasive species
.

Recreationally hunted species are generally referred to as the

gamekeeper
.

Hunter on a ground stand during a driven hunt in Finland

Hunting activities by humans arose in

primary production alongside forestry, agriculture, and fishery. Modern regulations (see game law) distinguish lawful hunting activities from illegal poaching, which involves the unauthorised and unregulated killing, trapping
, or capture of animals.

Bowhunter with a compound bow using a call

Apart from

exploitative
even by some hunters.

Professional deerstalker standing over a downed red stag in Scotland

trophy collection, or the foraging or gathering of plants and mushrooms, are also not regarded as hunting.[18]

Hunter carrying a reindeer in Greenland

Skillful

tracking and acquisition of an elusive target has caused the word hunt to be used in the vernacular as a metaphor for searching and obtaining something, as in "treasure hunting", "bargain hunting", "hunting for votes" and even "hunting down" corruption and waste
.

Etymology

The word hunt serves as both a noun ("the act, the practice, or an instance of hunting") and a verb ("to pursue for food or in sport"). [19] The noun has been dated to the early 12th century, from the verb hunt. Old English had huntung, huntoþ.[20] The meaning of "a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds" is first recorded in the 1570s. "The act of searching for someone or something" is from about 1600.[20]

The verb, Old English huntian "to chase game" (transitive and intransitive), perhaps developed from hunta "hunter," is related to hentan "to seize," from Proto-Germanic huntojan (the source also of Gothic hinþan "to seize, capture," Old High German hunda "booty"), which is of uncertain origin. The general sense of "search diligently" (for anything) is first recorded c. 1200.[21]

Types

History

Lower to Middle Paleolithic

Hunting has a long history. It predates the emergence of

anatomically modern humans) and may even predate the genus Homo
.

The oldest undisputed evidence for hunting dates to the Early Pleistocene, consistent with the emergence and early dispersal of Homo erectus about 1.7 million years ago (Acheulean).[22] While it is undisputed that Homo erectus were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of Homo erectus from its australopithecine ancestors, including the production of

social interaction
.

There is no direct evidence for hunting predating Homo erectus, in either Homo habilis or in Australopithecus. The early

scavenging
rather than hunting. Evidence for australopithecine meat consumption was presented in the 1990s.[23] It has nevertheless often been assumed that at least occasional hunting behaviour may have been present well before the emergence of Homo. This can be argued on the basis of comparison with
frugivorous diet.[25]
Indirect evidence for Oldowan era hunting, by early Homo or late Australopithecus, has been presented in a 2009 study based on an Oldowan site in southwestern Kenya.[26]

scavengers, not hunters,[27]
Blumenschine (1986) proposed the idea of confrontational scavenging, which involves challenging and scaring off other
predators after they have made a kill, which he suggests could have been the leading method of obtaining protein-rich meat by early humans.[28]

Stone spearheads dated as early as 500,000 years ago were found in South Africa.[29] Wood does not preserve well, however, and Craig Stanford, a primatologist and professor of anthropology at the University of Southern California, has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees probably means that early humans used wooden spears as well, perhaps, five million years ago.[30] The earliest dated find of surviving wooden hunting spears dates to the very end of the Lower Paleolithic, just before 300,000 years ago. The Schöningen spears, found in 1976 in Germany, are associated with Homo heidelbergensis.[31]

The

projectile points and animal processing implements were discovered at the Andean site of Wilamaya Patjxa, Puno District in Peru.[33]

Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic

Saharan rock art with prehistoric archers
Inuit hunting walrus, 1999

Evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple

herbivores.[34][35]

In some locations, such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.[36][37][38]

Hunting was a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies before the

spears to approximately 16,200 years ago.[39]

Sharp flint piece from Bjerlev Hede in central Jutland. Dated around 12,500 BC and considered the oldest hunting tool from Denmark.

Many species of animals have been hunted throughout history. One theory is that in North America and

Reindeer Age
), although the varying importance of different species depended on the geographic location.

Ancient Greek black-figure pottery depicting the return of a hunter and his dog; made in Athens c. 540 BC, found in Rhodes

Vedda people of Sri Lanka, and a handful of uncontacted peoples. In Africa, one of the last remaining hunter-gatherer tribes are the Hadza of Tanzania.[41]

Neolithic and Antiquity

Artemis with a Hind, a Roman copy of an Ancient Greek sculpture, c. 325 BC, by Leochares
An example of a Goguryeo tomb mural of hunting, middle of the first millennium

Even as animal domestication became relatively widespread and after the development of agriculture, hunting usually remained a significant contributor to the human food-supply. The supplementary meat and materials from hunting included

rawhide
and leather used in clothing.

Hunting is still vital in marginal climates, especially those unsuited for pastoral uses or for agriculture.[42] For example, Inuit in the Arctic trap and hunt animals for clothing and use the skins of sea mammals to make kayaks, clothing, and footwear.

On ancient

war chariot - early examples of royalty symbolically and militaristically engaging in hunting[43]
as "the sport of kings".[44] The cultural and
psychological importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the horned god Cernunnos and lunar goddesses of classical antiquity, the Greek Artemis or Roman Diana. Taboos are often related[citation needed] to hunting, and mythological association of prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a reserve surrounding a temple. Euripides' tale of Artemis and Actaeon
, for example, may be seen as a caution against disrespect of prey or against impudent boasting.

Low-relief the boar hunt, Taq-e Bostan

With the domestication of the dog,

"pointer" and "setter
".

Pastoral and agricultural societies

stag
, 14th century

Even as agriculture and animal husbandry became more prevalent, hunting often remained as a part of human culture where the environment and social conditions allowed. Hunter-gatherer societies persisted, even when increasingly confined to marginal areas. And within agricultural systems, hunting served to kill animals that prey upon domestic and wild animals or to attempt to extirpate animals seen by humans as competition for resources such as water or forage.

When hunting moved from a subsistence activity to a selective one, two trends emerged:

  1. the development of the role of the specialist hunter, with special training and equipment
  2. the option of hunting as a "sport" for members of an upper social class

The meaning of the word game in

horseback or from a chariot, had a function similar to tournaments and manly sports. Hunting ranked as an honourable, somewhat competitive pastime to help the aristocracy practice skills of war in times of peace.[45]

In most parts of

medieval Europe, the upper class obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen, but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer". In contrast, settlers in Anglophone colonies gloried democratically in hunting for all.[46]

In medieval Europe, hunting was considered by

Use of dog

Hunting Companions, Dutch 19th-century painting featuring two dogs, a shotgun and a game bag

Although various other animals have been used to aid the hunter, such as

ferrets
, the dog has assumed many very important uses to the hunter. The domestication of the dog has led to a symbiotic relationship in which the dog's independence from humans is deferred. Though dogs can survive independently of humans, and in many cases do ferrally, when raised or adopted by humans the species tends to defer to its control in exchange for habitation, food and support.[48]

Dogs today are used to find, chase, retrieve, and sometimes kill game. Dogs allow humans to pursue and kill prey that would otherwise be very difficult or dangerous to hunt. Different breeds of specifically bred hunting dog are used for different types of hunting. Waterfowl are commonly hunted using retrieving dogs such as the Labrador Retriever, the Golden Retriever, the Chesapeake Bay Retriever, the Brittany Spaniel, and other similar breeds. Game birds are flushed out using flushing spaniels such as the English Springer Spaniel, the various Cocker Spaniels and similar breeds.

The hunting of wild mammals in England and Wales with dogs was banned under the Hunting Act 2004. The wild mammals include fox, hare, deer and mink. There are, however, exceptions in the Act.[49]

Religion

Many prehistoric deities are depicted as predators or prey of humans, often in a

zoomorphic
form, perhaps alluding to the importance of hunting for most Palaeolithic cultures.

In many pagan religions, specific rituals are conducted before or after a hunt; the rituals done may vary according to the species hunted or the season the hunt is taking place.[citation needed] Often a hunting ground, or the hunt for one or more species, was reserved or prohibited in the context of a temple cult.[citation needed] In Roman religion, Diana is the goddess of the hunt.[50]

aristocrats hunting a blackbuck alongside an Asiatic cheetah
, 1812

Indian and Eastern religions

Sikhs hunting (unknown Pahari artist
, 18th century)
A tiger hunt at Jhajjar, Rohtak District, Punjab, c. 1820

Pandavas, accidentally killed the sage Kindama and his wife with an arrow, mistaking them for a deer.[citation needed
]

Buddha explained the issue by saying "all fear death; comparing others with oneself, one should neither kill nor cause to kill."[53]

In

Rehatnamas like Prem Sumarag, recommend hunting wild boar and deer
. However, among modern Sikhs, the practise of hunting has died down; some even saying that all meat is forbidden.

Christianity, Judaism, and Islam

Ladies hunting in the 15th century
Tapestry with a hunting scene, late 16th century

From

clerics. Thus the Corpus Juris Canonici (C. ii, X, De cleric. venat.) says, "We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions through the woods with hounds; and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons." The Fourth Council of the Lateran, held under Pope Innocent III, decreed (canon xv): "We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics." The decree of the Council of Trent is worded more mildly: "Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking" (Sess. XXIV, De reform., c. xii), which seems to imply that not all hunting is illicit, and canonists generally make a distinction declaring noisy (clamorosa) hunting unlawful, but not quiet (quieta) hunting.[54]

Ferraris gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it be indulged in rarely and for sufficient cause, as necessity, utility or "honest" recreation, and with that moderation which is becoming to the ecclesiastical state. Ziegler, however, thinks that the interpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the church.[54]

Nevertheless, although a distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting

subsistence farming activity is recognised by Pope Francis in his encyclical letter, Laudato si', as a legitimate and valuable aspect of employment within the food production system.[56]

Hunting is not forbidden in

Rabbi Yechezkel Landau after a study concluded although "hunting would not be considered cruelty to animals insofar as the animal is generally killed quickly and not tortured... There is an unseemly element in it, namely cruelty." The other issue is that hunting can be dangerous and Judaism places an extreme emphasis on the value of human life.[57][58]

Islamic Sharia Law permits hunting of lawful animals and birds if they cannot be easily caught and slaughtered. However, this is only for the purpose of food and not for trophy hunting.[59]

National traditions

East Africa

Explorer and big game hunter Samuel Baker chased by an elephant, illustration from 1890

A safari, from a

big game. Nowadays, it is often used to describe hunting tours through African wildlife.[63]

Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by licensed and highly regulated professional hunters, local guides, skinners, and porters in more difficult terrains.[citation needed] A special safari type is the solo-safari, where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation, and outfitting is done by the hunter himself.[64]

Indian subcontinent

Weeks Edwin's painting Departure for the Hunt, c. 1885
British India

During the

Bengal tigers, might be hunted from the back of an Indian elephant
.

Regional

Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 bans the killing of all wild animals. However, the Chief Wildlife Warden may, if satisfied that any wild animal from a specified list has become dangerous to human life, or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, permit any person to hunt such an animal. In this case, the body of any wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property.[65]

The practice among the soldiers in British India during the 1770s of going out to hunt

First World War
.

United Kingdom

Unarmed

stags (deer) or mink.[citation needed] Deer stalking with rifles is carried out on foot without hounds, using stealth.[11]

These forms of hunting have been controversial in the UK.

made illegal in February 2005 by the Hunting Act 2004; there were a number of exemptions (under which the activity may not be illegal) in the act for hunting with hounds, but no exemptions at all for hare-coursing.[71]

Shooting traditions

Game birds, especially pheasants, are shot with shotguns for sport in the UK; the British Association for Shooting and Conservation says that over a million people per year participate in shooting, including game shooting, clay pigeon shooting, and target shooting.[74] Shooting as practised in Britain, as opposed to traditional hunting, requires little questing for game—around thirty-five million birds are released onto shooting estates every year, some having been

factory farmed. Shoots can be elaborate affairs with guns placed in assigned positions and assistants to help load shotguns. When in position, "beaters" move through the areas of cover, swinging sticks or flags to drive the game out. Such events are often called "drives". The open season for grouse in the UK begins on 12 August, the so-called Glorious Twelfth. The definition of game in the United Kingdom is governed by the Game Act 1831
.

A similar tradition, ojeo [es], exists in Spain.

United States

dressed deer at Schoodic Lake, Maine
, in 1905
Carrying a bear trophy head at the Kodiak Archipelago

North American hunting pre-dates the United States by thousands of years and was an important part of many

Alaskan native
communities.

A man target practicing for the hunting seasons

Gun usage in hunting is typically regulated by game category, area within the state, and time period. Regulations for

weapons
.

Hunting in the United States is not associated with any particular class or culture; a 2006 poll showed seventy-eight per cent of Americans supported legal hunting,

Midwesterners hunted. Hunting in other areas of the country fell below the national average.[77] Overall, in the 1996–2006 period, the number of hunters over the age of sixteen declined by ten per cent, a drop attributable to a number of factors including habitat loss and changes in recreation habits.[78]

The principles of the fair chase[79] have been a part of the American hunting tradition for over one hundred years. The role of the hunter-conservationist, popularised by Theodore Roosevelt, and perpetuated by Roosevelt's formation of the Boone and Crockett Club, has been central to the development of the modern fair chase tradition. Beyond Fair Chase: The Ethic and Tradition of Hunting, a book by Jim Posewitz, describes fair chase:

"Fundamental to ethical hunting is the idea of fair chase. This concept addresses the balance between the hunter and the hunted. It is a balance that allows hunters to occasionally succeed while animals generally avoid being taken."[80]

When

National Rifle Association of America (NRA) explained, "The NRA has always maintained that fair chase, being in the field with your firearm or bow, is an important element of hunting tradition. Sitting at your desk in front of your computer, clicking at a mouse, has nothing to do with hunting."[81]

Animals such as

axis deer, fallow deer, zebras, barasingha, gazelle and many other exotic game species can now be found on game farms and ranches in Texas, where they were introduced for sport hunting. These hunters can be found paying in excess of $10,000 to take trophy animals on these controlled ranches.[82]

Russia

The

Tsars—under the influence of hunting customs of European royal courts. The imperial hunts were organised mainly in Peterhof, Tsarskoye Selo, and Gatchina
.

Riders gather for a dingo drive in Morven, Queensland, 1936.

Australia

Hunting in

upland birds such as quails, pheasants and partridges
.

New Zealand

New Zealand has a strong hunting culture.

goats, hare, tahr and chamois. With wilderness areas, suitable forage, and no natural predators, their populations exploded. Government agencies view the animals as pests due to their effects on the natural environment
and on agricultural production, but hunters view them as a resource.

Iran

Plate depicting Khosrow I hunting animals

Iranian tradition regarded hunting as an essential part of a prince's education,[87] and hunting was well recorded for the education of the upper-class youths during pre-Islamic Persia. As of October 2020, a hunting licence costs $20,000. The Department of Environment although do not report the number of permits issued.[88][89][90]

Japan

The numbers of licensed hunters in

snares and guns, is generally decreasing, while their average age is increasing. As of 2010, there were approximately 190,000 registered hunters, approximately 65% of whom were sixty years old or older.[91]

Trinidad and Tobago

There is a very active tradition of hunting small to medium-sized wild game in

cryptic golden tegu, the spectacled caiman, the common opossum and the capybara are also commonly hunted and poached. There is also some poaching of 'fully protected species', including red howler monkey and capuchin monkeys, southern tamandua, Brazilian porcupine, yellow-footed tortoise, the critically endangered island endemic Trinidad piping guan and even one of the national birds, the scarlet ibis. Legal hunters pay relatively small fees to obtain hunting licences and undergo no official basic conservation biology or hunting-ethics/fair chase
training, and are not assessed regarding their knowledge and comprehension of the local wildlife conservation laws. There is presumed to be relatively little subsistence hunting in the country (with most hunting for either sport or commercial profit). The local wildlife management authorities are under-staffed and under-funded, and as such little in the way of enforcement is done to uphold existing wildlife management laws, with hunting/poaching occurring both in and out of season and even in wildlife sanctuaries. There is some indication that the government is beginning to take the issue of wildlife management more seriously, with well drafted legislation being brought before Parliament in 2015. It remains to be seen if the drafted legislation will be fully adopted and financially supported by the current and future governments, and if the general populace will move towards a greater awareness of the importance of wildlife conservation and change the culture of wanton consumption to one of sustainable management.

Wildlife management

Control fence to assess the impact of browsing by ungulates. Note the lack of natural forest regeneration outside the fencing.

Hunting is claimed to give resource managers an important tool[92][93] in managing populations that might exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other species, or, in some instances, damage human health or safety.[94]

In some cases, hunting actually can increase the population of predators such as coyotes by removing territorial bounds that would otherwise be established, resulting in excess neighbouring migrations into an area, thus artificially increasing the population.

predators would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect, such as introducing significant amounts of free lead into the environment and food chain
.

In the United States, wildlife managers are frequently part of hunting regulatory and licensing bodies, where they help to set rules on the number, manner and conditions in which game may be hunted.

Management agencies sometimes rely on hunting to control specific animal populations, as has been the case with deer in North America. These hunts may sometimes be carried out by professional shooters, although others may include amateur hunters. Many US city and local governments hire professional and amateur hunters each year to reduce populations of animals such as deer that are becoming hazardous in a restricted area, such as neighbourhood parks and metropolitan open spaces.

A large part of managing populations involves managing the number and, sometimes, the size or age of animals harvested so as to ensure the sustainability of the population. Tools that are frequently used to control harvest are bag limits and season closures, although gear restrictions such as archery-only seasons are becoming increasingly popular in an effort to reduce hunter success rates in countries that rely on bag limits per hunter instead of per area.[citation needed]

Laws

Illegal hunting and harvesting of wild species contrary to local and international

conservation and wildlife management laws is called poaching. Game preservation is one of the tactics used to prevent poaching. Violations of hunting laws and regulations involving poaching are normally punishable by law.[96] Punishment can include confiscation of equipment, fines or a prison
sentence.

Right to hunt

The right to hunt—sometimes in combination with the right to fish—is protected implicitly, as a consequence of the right of ownership,[97] or explicitly, as a right on its own,[98][99] in a number of jurisdictions. For instance, as of 2019, a total of 22 U.S. states explicitly recognize a subjective right to hunt in their constitutions.[99][100]

Bag limits

Red-legged partridges on a game rack

Bag limits are provisions under the law that control how many animals of a given species or group of species can be killed, although there are often species for which bag limits do not apply. There are also

fishing creel
.

Where bag limits are used, there can be daily or seasonal bag limits; for example, ducks can often be harvested at a rate of six per hunter per day.[101] Big game, like moose, most often have a seasonal bag limit of one animal per hunter.[citation needed] Bag limits may also regulate the size, sex, or age of animal that a hunter can kill. In many cases, bag limits are designed to allocate harvest among the hunting population more equitably rather than to protect animal populations, as protecting the population would necessitate regional density-dependent maximum bags.

Closed and open season

A

open season
.

Methods

Tswana hunting the lion, 1841
American bison being chased off a cliff as seen and painted by Alfred Jacob Miller, c. 1860
Master or whipper-in and fox hounds drawing a wood. Hunting in Yorkshire, northern England, in 2005, on the last day of fully legal, proper, fox hunting.

Historical, subsistence, and sport hunting techniques can differ radically, with modern hunting regulations often addressing issues of where, when, and how hunts are conducted. Techniques may vary depending on government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local custom, hunting equipment, and the animal being hunted. Often a hunter will use a combination of more than one technique. Laws may forbid sport hunters from using some methods used primarily in poaching and wildlife management.

  • Baiting is the use of decoys, lures, scent, or food.
  • Battue involves scaring animals (by beating sticks) into a killing zone or ambush.
  • Beagling is the use of beagles in hunting rabbits, and sometimes in hunting foxes.
  • Beating uses human beaters to flush out game from an area or drive it into position.
  • Stand hunting or blind hunting is waiting for animals from a concealed or elevated position, for example from tree stands, hunting blinds or other types of shooting stands.
  • Calling is the use of animal noises to attract or drive animals.
  • Camouflage is the use of visual or odour concealment to blend with the environment.
  • Dogs may be used to course or to help flush, herd, drive, track, point at, pursue, or retrieve prey.
  • Driving is the herding of animals in a particular direction, usually toward another hunter in the group.
  • Flushing is the practice of scaring animals from concealed areas.
  • Ghillie suit is a type of gear a person can wear to blend with environment.[103]
  • Glassing is the use of optics, such as binoculars, to locate animals more easily.
  • Glue is an indiscriminate passive form to kill birds.[104]
  • Internet hunting is a method of hunting over the Internet using webcams and remotely controlled guns.
  • Netting involves using
    cannon nets and rocket nets
    .
  • Persistence hunting is the use of running and tracking to pursue the prey to exhaustion.[105]
  • Posting is done by sitting or standing in a particular place with the intentions of intercepting your game of choice along their travel corridor.[106]
  • Scouting for game is typically done prior to a hunt and will ensure the desired species are in a chosen area. Looking for animal sign such as tracks, scat, etc.... and utilizing "trail cameras" are commonly used tactics while scouting.
  • Shooting is the use of a ranged weapon such as a gun, bow, crossbow, or slingshot.
  • Solunar theory says that animals move according to the location of the moon in comparison to their bodies and is said to have been used long before this by hunters to know the best times to hunt their desired game.[107]
  • Spotlighting or shining is the use of artificial light to find or blind animals before killing.
  • Stalking or still hunting is the practice of walking quietly in search of animals or in pursuit of an individual animal.
  • Tracking is the practice of reading physical evidence in pursuing animals.
  • deadfalls
    to capture or kill an animal.

Statistics

Table

Number of hunters in various European and North American countries
Sources: Europe (2016/17),[108] Ireland (2007),[109] Canada (2012),[110] Russia (2012),[111] United States (2016);[112]
Country Hunters Population

(millions)

Hunters as percentage of

the total population

Relation

hunters/inhabitants

Area (km2) Hunters per km2
 Canada 2,482,678 34.7 7.15 1:14 9,984,670 0.25
 Finland 308,000 5.2 5.92 1:17 338,448 0.91
 Cyprus 45,000 0.8 5.63 1:18 5,896 7.63
 Norway 190,000 4.7 4.04 1:25 385,207 0.49
 Malta 15,000 0.4 3.75 1:27 316 47.47
 United States 11,453,000 323.1 3.54 1:28 9,826,675 1.17
 Sweden 290,000 9.0 3.22 1:31 447,435 0.65
 Denmark 165,000 5.5 3.00 1:33 42,921 3.84
 Ireland 104,000 4.2 2.48 1:46 70,273 1.48
 Greece 235,000 10.7 2.20 1:46 131,957 1.78
 Spain 980,000 45.0 2.18 1:46 505,970 1.94
 Portugal 230,000 10.7 2.15 1:47 92,212 2.49
 France 1,331,000 64.1 2.08 1:48 543,965 2.45
 Russia 2,800,000 143.2 1.96 1:51 17,125,200 0.16
 Bulgaria 110,000 7.7 1.43 1:70 110,994 0.99
 Austria 118,000 8.3 1.42 1:70 83,879 1.41
 United Kingdom 800,000 61.1 1.31 1:76 242,495 3.30
 Italy 750,000 58.1 1.29 1:77 301,338 2.49
 Estonia 16,600 1.3 1.28 1:78 45,339 0.37
 Croatia 55,000 4.5 1.22 1:82 56,594 0.97
 Slovenia 22,000 2.0 1.10 1:91 20,273 1.09
 Latvia 25,000 2.3 1.09 1:92 64,589 0.39
 Czech Republic 110,000 10.2 1.08 1:93 78,866 1.39
 Slovakia 55,000 5.4 1.02 1:98 49,034 1.12
 Lithuania 32,000 3.6 0.89 1:113 65,300 0.49
 Hungary 55,000 9.9 0.56 1:180 93,036 0.59
 Germany 351,000 82.5 0.43 1:235 357,578 0.98
 Luxembourg 2,000 0.5 0.40 1:250 2,586 0.77
 Switzerland 30,000 7.6 0.39 1:253 41,285 0.73
 Poland 106,000 38.5 0.28 1:363 312,696 0.34
 Romania 60,000 22.2 0.27 1:370 238,391 0.25
 Belgium 23,000 10.4 0.22 1:452 30,688 0.75
 Netherlands 28,170 16.7 0.17 1:593 41,543 0.68

Graph

Trophy hunting

Trophy collection of the Liechtenstein family at Úsov Castle, the Czech Republic
A hunter and local guides with an elephant they shot, 1970

Trophy hunting is the selective seeking and killing of wild game animals to take

trophies for personal collection, bragging rights or as a status symbol. It may also include the controversial hunting of captive or semi-captive animals expressly bred and raised under controlled or semi-controlled conditions so as to attain trophy characteristics; this is sometimes known as canned hunts.[113]

History

In the 19th century, southern and central European sport hunters often pursued game only for a trophy, usually the head or pelt of an animal, which was then displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was typically discarded. Some cultures, however, disapprove of such waste. In Nordic countries, hunting for trophies was—and still is—frowned upon. Hunting in North America in the 19th century was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies, although it is now undertaken mainly for sport.[citation needed] The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, trophy hunting persists and is a significant industry in some areas.[citation needed]

Conservation tool

According to the

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, hunting "provides an economic incentive" for ranchers to continue to breed those species, and that hunting "reduces the threat of the species' extinction."[114][115]

A scientific study in the journal, Biological Conservation, states that trophy hunting is of "major importance to conservation in Africa by creating economic incentives for conservation over vast areas, including areas which may be unsuitable for alternative wildlife-based land uses such as photographic ecotourism."[116] However, another study states that less than 3% of a trophy hunters' expenditures reach the local level, meaning that the economic incentive and benefit is "minimal, particularly when we consider the vast areas of land that hunting concessions occupy."[117]

Financial incentives from trophy hunting effectively more than double the land area that is used for wildlife conservation, relative to what would be conserved relying on national parks alone according to Biological Conservation,[116] although local communities usually derive no more than 18 cents per hectare from trophy hunting.[117]

Trophy hunting has been considered essential for providing economic incentives to conserve large carnivores according to research studies in Conservation Biology,[118] Journal of Sustainable Tourism,[119] Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use,[120] and Animal Conservation.[118][121] Studies by the Centre for Responsible Tourism[122] and the IUCN state that ecotourism, which includes more than hunting, is a superior economic incentive, generating twice the revenue per acre and 39 times more permanent employment.[123] At the crosssection of trophy hunting, ecotourism and conservation is green hunting, a trophy hunting alternative where hunters pay to dart animals that need to be tranquilized for conservation projects.[124]

The

giraffes.[126]

According to a national survey that the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service conducts every five years, fewer people are hunting, even as population rises. National Public Radio reported, a graph shows 2016 statistics, that only about 5 per cent of Americans, 16 years old and older, actually hunt, which is half of what it was 50 years ago. The decline in popularity of hunting is expected to accelerate over the next decade, which threatens how US will pay for conservation. [127]

Controversy

Trophy hunting is most often criticised when it involves rare or

Deer-stalking would be a very fine sport if only the deer had guns."[130]

There is also debate about the extent to which trophy hunting benefits the

local economy. Hunters pay substantial fees to the game outfitters and hunting guides which contributes to the local economy and provides value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops.[131] However, the argument is disputed by animal welfare organizations and other opponents of trophy hunting.[132][133] It is argued that the animals are worth more to the community for ecotourism than hunting.[134][135]

Economics

Duke of Hamilton's
hunting lodge
Marshal's Cabin, a former hunting lodge in Loppi, Finland

A variety of industries benefit from hunting and support hunting on economic grounds. In

ecotourist. While the average photo tourist may seek luxury accommodation, the average safari hunter generally stays in tented camps. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the typical ecotourist. Advocates argue that these hunters allow for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities.[citation needed
]

In the United Kingdom, the game hunting of birds as an industry is said to be extremely important to the rural economy. The Cobham Report of 1997 suggested it to be worth around £700 million, and hunting and shooting lobby groups claimed it to be worth over a billion pounds less than ten years later.[citation needed]

Hunting also has a significant financial impact in the United States, with many companies specialising in hunting equipment or speciality tourism. Many different technologies have been created to assist hunters. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In 2001, over thirteen million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting, and spent over $20.5 billion on their sport.[136] In the US, proceeds from hunting licences contribute to state game management programs, including preservation of wildlife habitat.

Hunting contributes to a portion of caloric intake of people and may have positive impacts on greenhouse gas emissions by avoidance of utilization of meat raised under industrial methods.[137]

Environmental problems

Right: .40 S&W round with hollow-point bullet Left: Expanded bullet of the same calibre with exposed lead core

Lead bullets that miss their target or remain in an unretrieved carcass could become a toxicant in the environment but lead in ammunition because of its metallic form has a lower solubility and higher resistance to corrosion than other forms of lead making it hardly available to biological systems.[138] Waterfowl or other birds may ingest the lead and poison themselves with the neurotoxicant, but studies have demonstrated that effects of lead in ammunition are negligible on animal population size and growth.[139][140] Since 1991, US federal law forbids lead shot in waterfowl hunts, and 30 states have some type of restriction.[141]

In December 2014, a federal appeals court denied a lawsuit by environmental groups that the

Toxic Substances Control Act to regulate lead in shells and cartridges. The groups sought EPA to regulate "spent lead", yet the court found EPA could not regulate spent lead without also regulating cartridges and shells.[142]

Conservation

The changing distribution of the world's land mammals in tonnes of carbon. The biomass of wild land mammals has declined by 85% since the emergence of humans, with hunting and agriculture being primary drivers of this decline.[143]

Hunters have been driving forces throughout history in the movement to ensure the preservation of

IPBES released another report which stated that unsustainable hunting, along with unsustainable logging and fishing, are primary drivers of the global extinction crisis.[161] A 2023 study published in BioScience posited that the prioritizing of hunting by state agencies in the United States over the rewinding of key species is "reinforcing" the loss of biodiversity.[162]

Legislation

Punishment of a Hunter (c. 1647) by Paulus Potter

Pittman–Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937

In 1937, American hunters successfully lobbied the US Congress to pass the

Absalom Willis Robertson
.

Federal Duck Stamp program

On 16 March 1934,

US Postal Service and depict wildlife artwork chosen through an annual contest. They play an important role in habitat conservation because ninety-eight per cent of all funds generated by their sale go directly toward the purchase or lease of wetland habitat for protection in the National Wildlife Refuge System.[164] In addition to waterfowl, it is estimated that one third of the nation's endangered species seek food and shelter in areas protected using Duck Stamp funds.[165]

Since 1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps has generated $670 million, and helped to purchase or lease 5,200,000 acres (8,100 sq mi; 21,000 km2) of habitat. The stamps serve as a license to hunt migratory birds, an entrance pass for all National Wildlife Refuge areas, and are also considered collectors items often purchased for

aesthetic reasons outside of the hunting and birding communities. Although non-hunters buy a significant number of Duck Stamps, eighty-seven per cent of their sales are contributed by hunters. Distribution of funds is managed by the Migratory Bird Conservation Commission (MBCC).[166]

Species

Arabian oryx

The Arabian oryx, a species of large antelope, once inhabited much of the desert areas of the Middle East.[150] Native Bedouin tribes had long hunted the oryx using camels and arrows. Oil exploration made the habitat increasingly accessible, and the species' striking appearance made it (along with the closely related scimitar-horned oryx and addax) a popular quarry for sport hunters, including foreign executives of oil companies.[167] The use of automobiles and high-powered rifles destroyed their only advantage: speed, and they became extinct in the wild exclusively due to sport hunting in 1972. The scimitar-horned oryx followed suit, while the addax became critically endangered.[168] However, the Arabian oryx has now made a comeback and been upgraded from "extinct in the wild" to "vulnerable" due to conservation efforts like captive breeding.[169]

Markhor

The markhor is an endangered species of wild goat which inhabits the mountains of Central Asia and Pakistan. The colonization of these regions by Britain gave British sport hunters access to the species, and they were hunted heavily, almost to the point of extinction. Only their willingness to breed in captivity and the inhospitability of their mountainous habitat prevented this. Despite these factors, the markhor is still endangered.[170]

American bison

The

bovid which inhabited much of western North America prior to the 1800s, living on the prairies in large herds. However, the vast herds of bison attracted market hunters, who killed dozens of bison for their hides only, leaving the rest to rot. Thousands of these hunters quickly eliminated the bison herds, bringing the population from several million in the early 1800s to a few hundred by the 1880s. Conservation efforts have allowed the population to increase, but the bison remains near-threatened due to lack of habitat.[171]

White rhino

The Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy cites that the legalization of white rhinoceros hunting in South Africa motivated private landowners to reintroduce the species onto their lands. As a result, the country saw an increase in white rhinos from fewer than one hundred individuals to more than 11,000, even while a limited number were killed as trophies.[172]

However, the illegal hunting of rhinoceros for their horns is highly damaging to the population and is currently growing globally,[173] with 1004 being killed in South Africa alone according to the most recent estimate.[174] The White Rhino (along with the other 4 rhino species) are poached due to beliefs that the Rhinos horns can be used to cure Cancer, Arthritis and other diseases and illnesses, even though they are scientifically proven wrong.[175]

Other species

According to Richard Conniff, Namibia is home to 1,750 of the roughly 5,000 black rhinos surviving in the wild because it allows trophy hunting of various species. Namibia's mountain zebra population has increased to 27,000 from 1,000 in 1982. Elephants, which "are gunned down elsewhere for their ivory", have gone to 20,000 from 15,000 in 1995. Lions, which were on the brink of extinction "from Senegal to Kenya", are increasing in Namibia.[176]

In contrast, Botswana in 2012 banned trophy hunting following a precipitous wildlife decline.[177] The numbers of antelope plummeted across Botswana, with a resultant decline in predator numbers, while elephant numbers remained stable and hippopotamus numbers rose. According to the government of Botswana, trophy hunting is at least partly to blame for this, but many other factors, such as poaching, drought and habitat loss are also to blame.[178] Uganda recently did the same, arguing that "the share of benefits of sport hunting were lopsided and unlikely to deter poaching or improve [Uganda's] capacity to manage the wildlife reserves."[179] In 2020, Botswana reopened trophy hunting on public lands.[180]

Studies

Cage trap (live trap) for cheetahs on a farm in Namibia

A study published by the

Wildlife Society concluded that hunting and trapping are cost effective tools that reduce wildlife damage by reducing a population below the capacity of the environment to carry it and changing the behaviors of animals to stop them from causing damage. The study furthermore states that the cessation of hunting could cause wildlife to be severely harmed, rural property values to fall, and the incentive of landowners to maintain natural habitats to diminish.[181]

Although deforestation and forest degradation have long been considered the most significant threats to tropical biodiversity, across Southeast Asia (Northeast India, Indochina, Sundaland, Philippines) substantial areas of natural habitat have few wild animals (>1 kg), bar a few hunting‐tolerant species.[182][183][184]

Opposition

It has been argued by animal rights activists that killing animals for sport is unethical, cruel, and unnecessary.

ecological balance, and that "nature takes care of its own".[16] They say that hunting can be combated on public lands by "spread[ing] deer repellent or human hair (from barber shops) near hunting areas".[16] Animal rights activists also argue that hunting is speciesist:[17]

Whether hunters try to justify their killing by citing human deaths caused by wild animals, by making conservationist claims, by claiming that it's acceptable to hunt as long as the animals' bodies are eaten, or simply because of the pleasure it brings them, the fact remains that hunting is morally unacceptable if we consider the interests of nonhuman animals. Hunted animals endure fear and pain, and then are deprived of their lives. Understanding the injustices of speciesism and the interests of nonhuman animals makes it clear that human pleasure cannot justify nonhuman animals' pain.[17]

Hunting in the arts

Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry
, c. 1445
The Kill – Deer Hunting in the Grand Jura Forests
, 1857
La Chasse (The Hunt), 1911, oil on canvas depicting a scene in the Cubist
style of hunting by horseback in France

See also

References

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  2. , Hunting is the practice of pursuing, capturing, or killing wildlife.
  3. . hunting The activity of finding and killing or capturing wild animals for food, pelts, or as a field sport.
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  5. . hunting [...] the activity of following and killing wild animals for sport
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