Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals
Invertebrates
Spiders
In 1948, Swiss pharmacologist Peter N. Witt started his research on the effect of drugs on
The drugs were administered by dissolving them in sugar water, and a drop of solution was touched to the spider's mouth. In some later studies, spiders were fed with drugged flies.[5] For qualitative studies, a well-defined volume of solution was administered through a fine syringe. The webs were photographed for the same spider before and after drugging.[2]
Witt's research was discontinued, but it became reinvigorated in 1984 after a paper by J.A. Nathanson in the journal
Other arthropods and molluscs
In 1984, Nathanson reported an effect of
Further, Nathanson fed tobacco hornworm larvae with leaves sprayed with such psychoactive drugs as caffeine, formamidine pesticide didemethylchlordimeform (DDCDM), IBMX or theophylline. He observed a similar effect, namely inhibition of feeding followed by death. Nathanson concluded that caffeine and related methylxanthines could be natural pesticides developed by plants as protection against worms: Caffeine is found in many plant species, with high levels in seedlings that are still developing foliage, but are lacking mechanical protection;[8] caffeine paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding upon the plant.[6] High caffeine levels have also been found in the soil surrounding coffee bean seedlings. It is therefore understood that caffeine has a natural function, both as a Biopesticide and as an inhibitor of seed germination of other nearby coffee seedlings, thus giving it a better chance of survival.[9]
These results and conclusions were confirmed by a similar study on slugs and snails. Cabbage leaves were sprayed with caffeine solutions and fed to Veronicella cubensis slugs and Zonitoides arboreus snails. Cabbage consumption reduced over time, followed by the death of the molluscs.[12] Inhibition of feeding by caffeine was also observed for caterpillars.[13]
Mammals
Elephants
"Tusko" was the name of a male Indian elephant at the Oklahoma City Zoo. On August 3, 1962,[14] researchers from the University of Oklahoma injected (human use involves oral ingestion) 297 mg of LSD to him, which is nearly three thousand times the human recreational dose (for an animal weighing roughly one hundred times as much as a human).[note 1] Within five minutes he collapsed to the ground and one hour and forty minutes later he died. It is believed that the LSD was the cause of his death, although some speculate that the drugs the researchers used in an attempt to revive him may have contributed to his death.[15][16][17][18][19][20] In 1984 psychologist Ronald K. Siegel repeated the experiment with two elephants, using LSD only. Both survived.[20]
Dolphins
Bottlenose dolphins were administered LSD in the 1960s as part of NASA-funded experiments by John C. Lilly to study human–animal communication. The drug caused the animals to become more vocal, but did not enable meaningful communication.[21][22][23]
Macaque monkeys
Squirrel monkeys
In a scientific study, researchers looked at how different drugs are self-administered by squirrel monkeys. The drugs they studied included cocaine and a few others that have some similarities to cocaine in how they affect the brain.
They trained the monkeys to give themselves these drugs through injections and observed their behavior. They wanted to see if the drugs had similar effects on the monkeys.
The results showed that cocaine and some of the other drugs had similar effects in maintaining the monkeys' self-administration behavior. However, one of the drugs, mazindol, didn't have the same effect on all the monkeys.
This suggests that the drugs that had similar effects may work in similar ways in the brain, affecting the monkeys' behavior in a comparable manner. The study also indicated that the reinforcing (addictive) and stimulating effects of these drugs might be related to how they interact with specific areas in the brain.
Overall, the research provides insights into how these drugs affect behavior and their potential for addiction.[25]
The researchers used a resident-intruder model to simulate social stress, with a focus on how social rank influenced the effects. The results showed that the confrontation influenced the monkeys' response to cocaine. When subordinate monkeys acted as intruders, their self-administration of low-dose cocaine increased, and their dose-response curve shifted to the left. In contrast, dominant monkeys experienced a decrease in cocaine self-administration and a rightward shift in the dose-response curve.
Brain glucose metabolism measurements revealed differences between dominant and subordinate monkeys, shedding light on the underlying mechanisms of these opposing behavioral effects. Dominant monkeys showed higher activity in brain regions related to visual processing, attention, and vigilance, while subordinate monkeys exhibited higher activity in areas linked to emotional processing and anxiety.
Both groups showed increased brain activity in regions associated with the reward system and stress response. Dominant monkeys also displayed higher aggression during the confrontations, suggesting that the opportunity to aggress might serve as a reinforcer.
The study indicated that the social context strongly influences behavior and drug effects, offering insights into individual differences in drug self-administration. It emphasized the need to consider the influence of social factors when developing treatments for cocaine use disorders, tailoring interventions to individuals based on their responses to social and environmental stressors. Understanding the neural and behavioral mechanisms at play in these scenarios can lead to more effective, personalized treatments for individuals with cocaine use disorders.[26]
Fish
Zebrafish
In a study testing the effects of THC on memory in zebrafish, researchers found that THC impairs spatial memory but has no effect on associative memory. Zebrafish were able to remember color patterns associated with them getting fed after being put under the influence of THC, but were unable to remember the spatial pattern associated with them getting fed after being put under the influence of THC.[28]
Zebrafish have also been used to test the medicinal benefits of certain psychoactive drugs, particularly how they can be used to treat mental health problems.[29] A study looking into the antidepressant properties of ketamine using zebrafish as subjects found that when exposed to small amounts of ketamine (2 mg/L), zebrafish displayed more aggressive behavior. However, when the zebrafish were exposed to higher doses of ketamine (20 mg/L & 40 mg/L), their aggressive behavior subsided. Moreover, the highest dose of ketamine increased locomotion and circling behavior.[30] In another study testing the behavioral effects of LSD on zebrafish found that zebrafish that were exposed to the substance demonstrated increased inter-fish distance when shoaling, and had increased cortisol levels. These could show possible side effects of LSD if used as a therapeutic drug.[31]
Nile Tilapia
A study conducted by the Aquaculture Institute looked into the effects of
Further reading
- Siegel, Ronald K. (1989, 2005) Intoxication: The Universal Drive for Mind-Altering Substances
See also
- Rat park
- Venom resistant animals
Notes
- ^ Tusko's realistic, unexaggerated weight was probably around 14,000 lb (6,350 kg), whereas the world average for an adult human's weight (in early 2019) was 136.7 lb (62.0 kg).
References
- ^ a b c Noever, David A.; Cronise, Raymond J.; Relwani, Rachna A. (1995). "Using spider-web patterns to determine toxicity" (PDF). NASA Tech Briefs. 19 (4): 82. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-03-27. Also published in New Scientist magazine Archived 2015-05-24 at the Wayback Machine, on 29 April 1995
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- ^ "Erowid LSD (Acid) Vault : LSD Related Death of Elephant in 1962". Erowid. November 30, 2012. Archived from the original on March 17, 2010. Retrieved March 30, 2010.
- ^ Jensen, Johan (7 August 2002). "A dose of madness". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 January 2008. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
- ^ a b Pilkington, Mark (26 February 2004). "Tusko's last trip". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2020.
- ^ "Scientists once gave dolphins LSD in attempt to communicate with them". The Independent. 13 June 2017. Archived from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
- ^ Oberhaus, Daniel (2 March 2017). "What We've Learned from Giving Dolphins LSD". Vice. Archived from the original on 28 January 2022. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
- ^ Abramson, Harold Alexander (1967). The Use of LSD in Psychotherapy and Alcoholism. Bobbs-Merrill. pp. 47–52. Archived from the original on 2022-01-28. Retrieved 2020-11-05.
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