Zoopharmacognosy
Zoopharmacognosy is a behaviour in which non-human animals self-medicate by selecting and ingesting or topically applying plants, soils and insects with medicinal properties, to prevent or reduce the harmful effects of pathogens, toxins, and even other animals.[1][2] The term derives from Greek roots zoo ("animal"), pharmacon ("drug, medicine"), and gnosy ("knowing").
An example of zoopharmacognosy occurs when dogs eat grass to induce vomiting. However, the behaviour is more diverse than this. Animals ingest or apply non-foods such as
Whether animals truly self-medicate remains a somewhat controversial subject because early evidence is mostly circumstantial or anecdotal.[4] However, more recent examinations have adopted an experimental, hypothesis-driven approach.
The methods by which animals self-medicate vary, but can be classified according to function as prophylactic (preventative, before infection or poisoning) or therapeutic (after infection, to combat the pathogen or poisoning).[4] The behaviour is believed to have widespread adaptive significance.[5]
History and etymology
In 1978, Janzen suggested that vertebrate herbivores might benefit medicinally from the secondary metabolites in their plant food.[6]
In 1993, the term "zoopharmacognosy" was coined, derived from the Greek roots zoo ("animal"), pharma ("drug"), and gnosy ("knowing").[7] The term gained popularity from academic works[4] and in a book by Cindy Engel entitled Wild Health: How Animals Keep Themselves Well and What We Can Learn from Them.[8]
Mechanisms
The
The
Methods of self-medication
The three reported methods of self-medication are deglutition, ingestion, and topical application. When using one of these methods while appearing well, an animal may be using self-medication as a
Deglutition
Some examples of zoopharmacognosy are demonstrated when animals, namely apes, swallow materials whole instead of chewing and ingesting them.
Chimpanzees
Wild chimpanzees sometimes seek leaves of the Aspilia plant. These contain thiarubrine-A, a chemical active against intestinal nematode parasites. Because this compound is quickly broken down by the stomach, chimpanzees will pick up the Aspilia leaves and, rather than chewing them, they roll them around in their mouths, sometimes for as long as 25 seconds. They then swallow the capsule-like leaves whole. Afterwards, the trichomes of the leaves can attach to any intestinal parasites, namely the nodular worm (Oesophagostomum stephanostomum) and tapeworm (Bertiella studeri), and allow the chimpanzee to physically expel the parasites.[13] As many as 15 to 35 Aspilia leaves may be used in each bout of this behaviour, particularly in the rainy season when there is an abundance of many parasitic larvae that can cause an increased risk of infection.[14]
Chimpanzees sometimes eat the leaves of the herbaceous
Bonobos sometimes swallow non-chewed stem-strips of
Monkeys
Tamarins were observed swallowing the large seeds of the fruit they regularly ingest. Although they are consumed along with the rest of the fruit, these seeds have no nutritional value for the monkeys. Since tamarins are routinely infected by trematodes, cestodes, nematodes, and acanthocephalans, there is speculation that the deliberate swallowing of these large seeds can help dislodge the parasites from the monkey's body.[16]
Bears
Similar to the wild chimpanzees,
Ingestion
Many examples of zoopharmacognosy involve an animal ingesting a substance with (potential) medicinal properties.
Birds
Many
Great bustards eat blister beetles of the genus Meloe maybe to decrease parasite load in the digestive system;[19] cantharidin, the toxic compound in blister beetles, can kill a great bustard if too many beetles are ingested.[20] Great bustards may eat toxic blister beetles of the genus Meloe to increase the sexual arousal of males.[21] Some plants selected in the mating season showed in-vitro activity against laboratory models of parasites and pathogens.[22]
Invertebrates
The
Ants
Ants infected with Beauveria bassiana, a fungus, selectively consume harmful substances (reactive oxygen species, ROS) upon exposure to a fungal pathogen, yet avoid these in the absence of infection.[23]
Mammals
Great apes often consume plants that have no nutritional values but which have beneficial effects on gut acidity or combat intestinal parasitic infection.[1]
Chimpanzees sometimes select bitter leaves for chewing. Parasite infection drops noticeably after chimpanzees chew leaves of pith (Vernonia amygdalina), which contain sesquiterpene lactones and steroid glucosides that are particularly effective against schistosoma, plasmodium and Leishmania.[25] Specifically, these compounds can induce paralysis within the parasites and impair its ability to absorb nutrients, move, and reproduce.[26] Chimpanzees do not consume bitter on a regular basis, but when they do, it is often in small amounts by individuals that appear ill.[27] Jane Goodall witnessed chimpanzees eating particular bushes, apparently to make themselves vomit.[citation needed]
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) apparently self-medicate to induce labour by chewing on the leaves of a particular tree from the family Boraginaceae; Kenyan women brew a tea from this tree for the same purpose.[31]
White-nosed
Domestic cats and dogs often select and ingest plant material, apparently to induce vomiting.[33]
Indian wild boars selectively dig up and eat the roots of pigweed which humans use as an anthelmintic. Mexican folklore indicates that pigs eat pomegranate roots because they contain an alkaloid that is toxic to tapeworms.[34]
A study on
Standard laboratory cages prevent mice from performing several natural behaviours for which they are highly motivated. As a consequence,
During the cold and rainy seasons, the crested porcupines (
Geophagy
Many animals eat soil or clay, a behaviour known as
- soils adsorb toxins such as phenolics and secondary metabolites
- soil ingestion has an antacid action and adjusts the gut pH
- soils act as an antidiarrhoeal agent
- soils counteract the effects of endoparasites.
Furthermore, two hypotheses pertain to geophagy in supplementing minerals and elements:
- soils supplement nutrient-poor diets
- soils provide extra iron at high altitudes
Topical application
Some animals apply substances with medicinal properties to their skin. Again, this can be prophylactic or curative. In some cases, this is known as self-anointing.
Mammals
A female capuchin monkey in captivity was observed using tools covered in a sugar-based syrup to groom her wounds and those of her infant.[41][42]
North American
A range of primates rub
Birds
More than 200 species of song birds wipe ants, a behaviour known as
Some birds select nesting material rich in anti-microbial agents that may protect themselves and their young from harmful infestations or infections.
Social zoopharmacognosy
Zoopharmacognosy is not always exhibited in a way that benefits the individual. Sometimes the target of the medication is the group or the colony.
Wood ants (
Honey bees also incorporate plant-produced resins into their nest architecture, which can reduce chronic elevation of an individual bee's immune response. When colonies of honey bees are challenged with the fungal parasite (Ascophaera apis), the bees increase their resin foraging. Additionally, colonies experimentally enriched with resin have decreased infection intensities of the fungus.[56]
Transgenerational zoopharmacognosy
Zoopharmacognosy can be classified depending on the target of the medication. Some animals lay their eggs in such a way that their offspring are the target of the medication.
Adult monarch butterflies preferentially lay their eggs on toxic plants such as milkweed which reduce parasite growth and disease in their offspring caterpillars.[57] This has been termed transgenerational therapeutic medication.[58]
When detecting
Value to humans
In an interview with Neil Campbell, Eloy Rodriguez describes the importance of biodiversity to medicine:
Some of the compounds we've identified by zoopharmacognosy kill parasitic worms, and some of these chemicals may be useful against
tumors. There is no question that the templates for most drugs are in the natural world.[29]
Media
- 2002 British documentary television series Weird Nature episode 6 "Peculiar Potions" documents variety of animals engaging in intoxication or zoopharmacognosy.[61]
- 2014 documentary pufferfish.
See also
References
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- ^ Biser JA (1998). "Really wild remedies — medicinal plant use by animals". nationalzoo.si.edu. National Zoological Park. Archived from the original on 2004-06-30. Retrieved 2005-01-13.
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- ^ PMID 19274098.
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- ^ Cindy E (2002). Wild Health: How Animals Keep Themselves Well and What We Can Learn from Them. Harcourt Mifflin Harcourt, New York.
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- ^ Jacobs JO (2000). "Bonobo's late night tales". Retrieved November 27, 2013.
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- ^ Orzeck R (2007). "Pondering the mysteries of our universe: Why do dogs eat grass?". Retrieved October 28, 2013.
- ^ Glander KE (1994). "Nonhuman primate self-medication with wild plant foods" (PDF). In Etkin NL (ed.). Eating on the Wild Side: The Pharmacologic, Ecologic, and Social Implications of Using Noncultigens. The University of Arizona Press. pp. 227–239.
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- ^ Sherwin CM, Olsson IA (2004). "Housing conditions affect self-administration of anxiolytic by laboratory mice". Animal Welfare. 13: 33–38.
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- ^ Jain CP, Dashora A, Garg R, Kataria U, Vashistha B (2008). "Animal self-medication through natural sources" (PDF). Natural Product Radiance. 7 (1): 49–53.
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- ^ Cowen R (November 1990). "Medicine on the wild side; animals may rely on a natural pharmacy". Science News.
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- ^ Banerji, Urvija. "Lemurs Get High on Their Millipede Supply". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
- John Downer Productions. BBC Four. Retrieved March 22, 2023.
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- ^ Ichida J (2004-05-26). "Birds use herbs to protect their nests, BJS, Science Blog, Wed, 2004-05-26". Proceedings of the 104th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology.
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- ^ "Peculiar Potions part 1 / 3". BBC Weird Nature – via YouTube.
Further reading
- Samorini, Giorgio (2002) Animals and Psychedelics: The Natural World And The Instinct To Alter Consciousness