Cannabis
Cannabis | |
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Common hemp | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Rosales |
Family: | Cannabaceae |
Genus: | Cannabis L. |
Species[1] | |
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Part of a series on |
Cannabis |
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Cannabis (
The plant is also known as
Description
Cannabis is an
The leaves have a peculiar and diagnostic venation pattern (which varies slightly among varieties) that allows for easy identification of cannabis leaves from unrelated species with similar leaves. As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip, but in cannabis this originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of the second notch down. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes the vein will pass tangentially to the notch, but often will pass by at a small distance; when the latter happens a spur vein (or occasionally two) branches off and joins the leaf margin at the deepest point of the notch. Tiny samples of Cannabis also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, requiring special equipment and expertise.[12]
Reproduction
All known
Cannabis is predominantly
Many monoecious varieties have also been described,[20] in which individual plants bear both male and female flowers.[21] (Although monoecious plants are often referred to as "hermaphrodites", true hermaphrodites – which are less common in Cannabis – bear staminate and pistillate structures together on individual flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at different locations on the same plant.) Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread.[22][23][24] Many populations have been described as sexually labile.[25][26][27]
As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar.[28] Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where the fruits (produced by female flowers) are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops,[22] but sativa strains often produce monoecious individuals, which is possibly as a result of inbreeding.
Sex determination
Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants.[28] Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.
Based on studies of sex reversal in
Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants.[15] Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.[31]
Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type".[15]
The question of whether heteromorphic
More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors[35][36] have used random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and amplified fragment length polymorphism.[37][25][38] Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,
It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination.[15]
Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.
-
A male hemp plant
-
Dense raceme of female flowers typical of drug-type varieties of Cannabis
Chemistry
Cannabis plants produce a large number of chemicals as part of their defense against herbivory. One group of these is called cannabinoids, which induce mental and physical effects when consumed.
Cannabinoids, terpenes, terpenoids, and other compounds are secreted by glandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants.[42]
-
Root system side view
-
Root system top view
-
Micrograph C. sativa (left), C. indica (right)
Genetics
Cannabis, like many organisms, is
Taxonomy
The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the
Various types of Cannabis have been described, and variously classified as
- plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types.
- plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types.
- escaped, hybridised, or wild forms of either of the above types.
Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, some of which produce the "high" which may be experienced from consuming marijuana. There are 483 identifiable chemical constituents known to exist in the cannabis plant,[49] and at least 85 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the plant.[50] The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive.[51] Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or "chemotype", based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD.[52] Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant.[37] Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F1) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce intermediate amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.[52][53]
Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species.[54] One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."[55] Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species.[55] Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile.[43] However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation.[56] It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.[57][58][59]
Early classifications
The genus Cannabis was first
20th century
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that
In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the
In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small[66] and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies and two varieties in each. The framework is thus:
- C. sativa L. subsp. sativa, presumably selectedfor traits that enhance fiber or seed production.
- C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. sativa, domesticated variety.
- C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav., wild or escaped variety.
- C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq.,[62] primarily selected for drug production.
- C. sativa L. subsp. indica var. indica, domesticated variety.
- C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq, wild or escaped variety.
This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of
Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist
Continuing research
An investigation of genetic, morphological, and
A 2020 analysis of single-nucleotide polymorphisms reports five clusters of cannabis, roughly corresponding to hemps (including folk "Ruderalis") folk "Indica" and folk "Sativa".[80]
Despite advanced analytical techniques, much of the cannabis used recreationally is inaccurately classified. One laboratory at the University of British Columbia found that Jamaican Lamb's Bread, claimed to be 100% sativa, was in fact almost 100% indica (the opposite strain).[81] Legalization of cannabis in Canada (as of 17 October 2018[update]) may help spur private-sector research, especially in terms of diversification of strains. It should also improve classification accuracy for cannabis used recreationally. Legalization coupled with Canadian government (Health Canada) oversight of production and labelling will likely result in more—and more accurate—testing to determine exact strains and content. Furthermore, the rise of craft cannabis growers in Canada should ensure quality, experimentation/research, and diversification of strains among private-sector producers.[82]
Popular usage
The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology,
Mapping the morphological concepts to scientific names in the Small 1976 framework, "Sativa" generally refers to C. sativa subsp. indica var. indica, "Indica" generally refers to C. sativa subsp. i. kafiristanica (also known as afghanica), and "Ruderalis", being lower in THC, is the one that can fall into C. sativa subsp. sativa. The three names fit in Schultes's framework better, if one overlooks its inconsistencies with prior work.[74] Definitions of the three terms using factors other than morphology produces different, often conflicting results.
Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as "pure indica", "mostly indica", "indica/sativa", "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa". These categories are highly arbitrary, however: one "AK-47" hybrid strain has received both "Best Sativa" and "Best Indica" awards.[74]
Phylogeny
Cannabis likely split from its closest relative, Humulus (hops), during the mid Oligocene, around 27.8 million years ago according to molecular clock estimates. The centre of origin of Cannabis is likely in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. The pollen of Humulus and Cannabis are very similar and difficult to distinguish. The oldest pollen thought to be from Cannabis is from Ningxia, China, on the boundary between the Tibetan Plateau and the Loess Plateau, dating to the early Miocene, around 19.6 million years ago. Cannabis was widely distributed over Asia by the Late Pleistocene. The oldest known Cannabis in South Asia dates to around 32,000 years ago.[83]
Etymology
The word cannabis is from Greek κάνναβις (kánnabis) (see Latin cannabis),[84] which was originally Scythian or Thracian.[85] It is related to the Persian kanab, the English canvas and possibly the English hemp (Old English hænep).[85]
Uses
Cannabis is used for a wide variety of purposes.
History
According to genetic and archaeological evidence, cannabis was first domesticated about 12,000 years ago in East Asia during the early Neolithic period.[9] The use of cannabis as a mind-altering drug has been documented by archaeological finds in prehistoric societies in Eurasia and Africa.[86] The oldest written record of cannabis usage is the Greek historian Herodotus's reference to the central Eurasian Scythians taking cannabis steam baths.[87] His (c. 440 BCE) Histories records, "The Scythians, as I said, take some of this hemp-seed [presumably, flowers], and, creeping under the felt coverings, throw it upon the red-hot stones; immediately it smokes, and gives out such a vapour as no Greek vapour-bath can exceed; the Scyths, delighted, shout for joy."[88] Classical Greeks and Romans also used cannabis.
In China, the psychoactive properties of cannabis are described in the
In the Middle East, use spread throughout the Islamic empire to North Africa. In 1545, cannabis spread to the western hemisphere where Spaniards imported it to Chile for its use as fiber. In North America, cannabis, in the form of hemp, was grown for use in rope, cloth and paper.[90][91][92][93]
Cannabinol (CBN) was the first compound to be isolated from cannabis extract in the late 1800s. Its structure and chemical synthesis were achieved by 1940, followed by some of the first preclinical research studies to determine the effects of individual cannabis-derived compounds in vivo.[94]
Globally, in 2013, 60,400 kilograms of cannabis
Recreational use
Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind alcohol, caffeine, and tobacco. In the U.S. alone, it is believed that over 100 million Americans have tried cannabis, with 25 million Americans having used it within the past year.[when?][97] As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried infructescences ("buds" or "marijuana"), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively known as hash oil.[10]
Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a
Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no intoxicating effects by itself[51] (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine),[99] is thought to attenuate (i.e., reduce)[100] the anxiety-inducing effects of high doses of THC, particularly if administered orally prior to THC exposure.[101]
According to
In 2014 there were an estimated 182.5 million cannabis users worldwide (3.8% of the global population aged 15–64).[107] This percentage did not change significantly between 1998 and 2014.[107]
Medical use
Medical cannabis (or medical marijuana) refers to the use of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids, in an effort to treat disease or improve symptoms. Cannabis is used to
Short-term use increases both minor and major adverse effects.[109] Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations.[109] Long-term effects of cannabis are not clear.[113] Concerns including memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in young people, and the risk of children taking it by accident.[108]
Industrial use (hemp)
The term hemp is used to name the durable soft fiber from the Cannabis
Cannabis for industrial uses is valuable in tens of thousands of commercial products, especially as fibre
In the US, "industrial hemp" is classified by the federal government as cannabis containing no more than 0.3% THC by dry weight. This classification was established in the
Ancient and religious uses
The Cannabis plant has a history of medicinal use dating back thousands of years across many cultures.
Settlements which date from c. 2200–1700 BCE in the
: 306Cannabis is first referred to in
In
In modern times, the
Since the 13th century CE, cannabis has been used among
See also
- All pages with titles beginning with Cannabis
- All pages with titles containing Cannabis
- Cannabis drug testing
- Cannabis edible
- Cannabis flower essential oil
- Hash, Marihuana & Hemp Museum
- Indian Hemp Drugs Commission
- Legal history of cannabis in the United States
- Legality of cannabis by U.S. jurisdiction
- List of books about cannabis
- Occupational health concerns of cannabis use
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Further reading
- Deitch R (2003). Hemp: American History Revisited: The Plant with a Divided History. Algora Pub. ISBN 978-0-87586-206-4.
- Earleywine M (2005). Understanding Marijuana: A New Look at the Scientific Evidence. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513893-1. Archivedfrom the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
- Emmett D, Nice G (2009). What you need to know about cannabis: understanding the facts. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84310-697-5. Archivedfrom the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
- Guy GW, Whittle BA, Robson P (2004). The medicinal uses of cannabis and cannabinoids. Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN 978-0-85369-517-2. Archivedfrom the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
- Holland J (2010). The Pot Book: A Complete Guide to Cannabis: Its Role in Medicine, Politics, science, and culture. Park Street Press. ISBN 978-1-59477-368-6. Archivedfrom the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
- Iversen LL (2008). The science of marijuana (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532824-0.
- Jenkins R (2006). Cannabis and Young People: Reviewing the Evidence. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84310-398-1.
- Lambert DM (2008). Cannabinoids in Nature and Medicine. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-906390-56-7. Archivedfrom the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
- Roffman RA, Stephens RS (2006). Cannabis Dependence: Its Nature, Consequences, and Treatment. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81447-8. Archivedfrom the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
- Russo E, Dreher MC, Mathre ML (2004). Women and Cannabis: Medicine, Science, and Sociology. Haworth Press. ISBN 978-0-7890-2101-4. Archivedfrom the original on 1 January 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
- Solowij N (1998). Cannabis and Cognitive Functioning. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59114-0. Archivedfrom the original on 8 December 2016. Retrieved 27 September 2016.