Eldgjá
Eldgjá | |
---|---|
Highest point | |
Elevation | varies: canyon to 800 metres (2,625 ft) |
Listing | List of volcanoes in Iceland |
Coordinates | 63°58′00″N 18°36′33″W / 63.96667°N 18.60917°W |
Geography | |
Location | Katla |
Last eruption | 939 |
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Eldgjá (Icelandic pronunciation:
While Icelandic records about the effects of the eruption are sparse,
Geology
The interaction between the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Iceland hotspot has given rise to the stack of volcanic rocks that forms Iceland.[3] Volcanoes on Iceland occur in four volcanic zones; the North Volcanic Zone in northeastern Iceland, the East Volcanic Zone in the southeast, the West Volcanic Zone in the southwest and the Snæfellsnes Volcanic Zone in the west. The first three of these form an upside-down Y structure, with each volcanic zone consisting of volcanic and tectonic lineaments that extend from north-northeast to south-southwest. These lineaments are dotted with volcanic edifices; Eldgjá lies in the East Volcanic Zone[4] where there are no large shield volcanoes but numerous long fissures, including Laki.[5]
The rocks erupted by Eldgjá are mainly
Geography and geomorphology
Eldgjá means "fire gorge"
It consists of a northeast-southwest trending graben with explosion craters, about 8.5 kilometres (5.3 mi) long.[24] It is 600 metres (2,000 ft) wide, 150 metres (490 ft) deep and part of a larger 40 kilometres (25 mi) long chain of offset grabens.[25] The canyon is subdivided into four segments from southwest to northeast. The northeasternmost segment is known as Kambagígar[26][18] [ˈkʰampaˌciːɣar̥]); the name Eldgjá is usually only applied to the 8.5 km (5.3 mi) long segment[25] in the middle of the chain, but the 939 eruption also involved other segments.[27] The canyon extends between the Öldufellsjökull glacier[27] [ˈœltʏˌfɛlsˌjœːkʏtl̥] of the Myrdalsjökull Ice Cap (the ice cap covers part of the fissure[28]) in the southwest, stretches across mountainous terrain[2] and almost reaches the Vatnajökull Ice Cap to the northeast at Stakafell [ˈstaːkaˌfɛtl̥] mountain.[27] It is the longest volcanic fissure in Iceland.[2]
Ground fractures,
The Eldgjá is part of the wider
10th century eruption
The Eldgjá eruption was the largest Holocene eruption of the Katla system,
The eruption has been linked to an episode of active
Dating
The Eldgjá eruption took place in the 930s, but its exact date had long been uncertain. Early research put its beginning during 934-938.[34] Later research published in 2015 indicated that it began in 939 and likely ended in 940,[42] but may have continued for several years more.[2] Further confusion had been created because the Eldgjá eruption occurred only seven years before the Millennium Eruption of Paektu Mountain on the China–Korea border.[43] Some climatic effects attributed to the Eldgjá eruption may actually have resulted from the Paektu eruption.[44] That eruption, in 946 CE, may have produced only a small amount of sulfate aerosols,[45][46] far less than Eldgjá.[47][48] A tephra layer at Katla originally attributed to a 1000 CE eruption is now considered to be part of the Eldgjá eruption.[49]
Products
The eruption produced two fields of (mostly
About 1.3 cubic kilometres (0.31 cu mi)
Tephra and aerosol emissions
Both tephra layers and sulfate layers linked to the Eldgjá eruption occur in Greenland, where they have been recorded from ice cores[47] in the form of layers where the ice contains more acids,[60] salts and tiny glass shards.[61] Tephra layers from the eruption have been used to date lake sediments[62] and ice cores in the Northern Hemisphere,[63] volcanic eruptions at Eyjafjallajökull[64] and other Icelandic volcanoes,[65] glacier advances on the island,[66] and events in Viking Age Iceland.[67]
Large volcanic eruptions can produce veils of
We looked at the sun, it did not have any strength, neither light nor heat. But we saw the sky and the colour [or ‘appearance’] of it changed, as though viscous. And others said that they saw the sun as though half
— Annales Casinates, Italy[72]
The climate impact of the Eldgjá has been recorded in
The sun was the colour of blood from the beginning of day to midday on the following day
Human impacts
Even though Iceland was already settled at that time and the impacts of the eruption were severe,[80] there are no contemporary historical records of the eruption. Anecdotal reports are recorded in the Book of Settlements, which was written about 200 years later.[2] Events in the poem Völuspá may record the eruption[81] or another eruption of Katla.[80] According to the Book of Settlements, lava flows forced settlers east of Katla off their land;[39] two settlements or farms belonging to at least two settlements in the Álftaver [ˈaul̥taˌvɛːr̥] area southeast of Katla had to be abandoned due to damage from lava flows[82] and sources of the 12th century define it a "wasteland".[48] Tephra covered an area of about 20,000 square kilometres (7,700 sq mi) on Iceland; of these, 600 square kilometres (230 sq mi) were covered with over 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) of tephra and had to be abandoned, while 2,600 square kilometres (1,000 sq mi) received a tephra cover exceeding 20 centimetres (7.9 in) and suffered heavy damage as a result.[83] The events and impact of the eruption may have stopped the settlement of the island[84][85] and could have played a role in stimulating the Christianization of Iceland.[86]
The settler Molda-Gnúpur took possession of land in Álftaver district between the rivers Kúðafjót and Eyjará. At that time a large lake was there and good swan hunting. He sold part of his settlement to many newcomers. The area became populated before it was overrun by jarðeldur (an earth fire), then they fled west to Höfðabrekka and set up a camp at Tjaldavellir
— Landnámabók pp. 328–331; Translation in Pálsson and Edwards 1972, Chap. 86[87]
Unlike the local impacts on Iceland, the effects of the Eldgjá eruption on Europe appear in the historical record.[88] Darkened skies were reported from Germany, Ireland, Italy, Portugal and Spain[42] although the interpretation of contemporary reports as referencing atmospheric phenomena linked to the Eldgjá eruption is controversial.[89][90] Reportedly, winters in Europe and China between 939-942 were severe, with the sea and canals freezing, while droughts occurred during the summer months. Food crises reported in China, the Maghreb, the Levant and Western Europe at that time have been linked to the Eldgjá eruption.[76] More tentatively, the downfall of the Later Jin Dynasty[91] and locust plagues in China,[92] a decrease of human activity on Ireland[93] and rebellions in Japan have been connected to the Eldgjá eruption.[45]
Impacts of a repeat
Large fissure-fed effusive eruptions in Iceland reoccur every few centuries. The much smaller (0.27±0.07
See also
- Geography of Iceland
- Glacial lake outburst flood
- Iceland hotspot
- Iceland plume
- List of glaciers of Iceland
- List of lakes of Iceland
- Timeline of volcanism on Earth
- Volcanism of Iceland
References
- ^ a b Moreland et al. 2019, p. 131.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Moreland et al. 2019, p. 130.
- ^ a b Brugnatelli & Tibaldi 2020, p. 1.
- ^ a b Gudmundsson 2016, p. 79.
- ^ Gudmundsson 2016, p. 91.
- ^ Larsen 2010, p. 40.
- ^ Scharrer et al. 2008, p. 502.
- ^ Scharrer et al. 2008, p. 501.
- ^ Ahlmann 1937, p. 221.
- ^ Thordarson et al. 2001, p. 38.
- ^ Thordarson et al. 2001, p. 41.
- ^ a b Óladóttir, Sigmarsson & Larsen 2018, p. 3.
- ^ Jovanelly 2020, p. 76.
- ^ Oppenheimer et al. 2018, p. 370.
- ^ a b Miller 1989, p. 8.
- ^ Thordarson 2003, p. 18.
- ^ White & Skilling 1999, p. 7.
- ^ a b Miller 1989, p. 12.
- ^ Waltham 1994, p. 232.
- ^ MENR 2011.
- ^ Baldursson et al. 2018, p. 227.
- ^ a b Johannesson, Sigmundsdóttir & Sigursveinsson 2023, p. 55.
- ^ Baldursson et al. 2018, p. 241.
- ^ a b c d e f g Brugnatelli & Tibaldi 2020, p. 2.
- ^ a b Gudmundsson 2016, p. 90.
- ^ a b Miller 1989, p. 13.
- ^ a b c d Larsen 2010, p. 37.
- ^ Bathgate et al. 2015, p. 847.
- ^ a b von Komorowicz 1912, p. 53.
- ^ Miller 1989, p. 10.
- ^ Miller 1989, p. 14.
- ^ Jovanelly 2020, p. 27.
- ^ Miller 1989, p. 7.
- ^ a b c d e Brugnatelli & Tibaldi 2020, p. 3.
- ^ a b Brugnatelli & Tibaldi 2020, p. 4.
- ^ a b Brugnatelli & Tibaldi 2020, p. 10.
- ^ Johannesson, Sigmundsdóttir & Sigursveinsson 2023, p. 60.
- ^ Oladottir et al. 2007, p. 184.
- ^ a b Thordarson et al. 2001, p. 35.
- ^ Acocella & Trippanera 2016, p. 872.
- ^ Óladóttir, Sigmarsson & Larsen 2018, p. 10.
- ^ a b Simpson 2020, p. 23.
- ^ Sun et al. 2014, p. 698.
- ^ Yin et al. 2012, p. 157.
- ^ a b Obata & Adachi 2019, p. 1881.
- ^ Sun et al. 2014, p. 700.
- ^ a b Oppenheimer et al. 2018, p. 372.
- ^ a b Oppenheimer et al. 2018, p. 371.
- ^ Larsen 2010, p. 30.
- ^ Self, Keszthelyi & Thordarson 1998, p. 82.
- ^ Jovanelly 2020, p. 77.
- ^ a b c Larsen 2010, p. 38.
- ^ a b Larsen 2010, p. 44.
- ^ Jordan, Carley & Banik 2019, p. 53.
- ^ Jovanelly 2020, p. 64.
- ^ Svavarsson & Kristjánsson 2006, p. 12.
- ^ Guðmundsdóttir, Eiríksson & Larsen 2012, p. 65.
- ^ Larsen 2010, p. 28.
- ^ Moreland et al. 2019, p. 147.
- ^ Hammer 1980, pp. 368–369.
- ^ Abbott & Davies 2012, p. 182.
- ^ Brader et al. 2017, p. 121.
- ^ Fritzsche, Opel & Meyer 2012.
- ^ Dugmore et al. 2013, p. 239.
- ^ Thordarson, Miller & Larsen 1998, p. 5.
- ^ Kirkbride & Dugmore 2008, p. 399.
- ^ Swindles et al. 2019, p. 212.
- ^ Fei & Zhou 2006, p. 444.
- ^ Martini & Chesworth 2011, p. 285.
- ^ Tankersley et al. 2018, p. 1.
- ^ Tankersley & Herzner 2022, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Oppenheimer et al. 2018, p. 375.
- ^ Lechleitner et al. 2017, p. 6.
- ^ Fei & Zhou 2006, p. 446.
- ^ Oppenheimer et al. 2018, p. 374.
- ^ a b Oppenheimer et al. 2018, p. 376.
- ^ Latałowa et al. 2019, p. 1344.
- ^ Ludlow et al. 2013.
- ^ Falk 2007, p. 2.
- ^ a b Maraschi 2021, p. 97.
- ^ Oppenheimer et al. 2018, p. 377.
- ^ Larsen 2010, p. 27.
- ^ Larsen 2010, p. 43.
- ^ Baldursson et al. 2018, p. 62.
- ^ Stone 2004, p. 1281.
- ^ Oppenheimer et al. 2018, p. 378.
- ^ Martini & Chesworth 2011, p. 288.
- ^ Ebert 2019, p. 1.
- ^ Brugnatelli & Tibaldi 2021, p. 3.
- ^ Ebert 2019, p. 2.
- ^ Fei & Zhou 2006, p. 443.
- ^ Wang et al. 2023, p. 11.
- ^ McClung & Plunkett 2020, pp. 139, 157.
- ^ Brugnatelli & Tibaldi 2020, p. 11.
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External links
- "Eldgjargos og Landbrotshraun" [The Eldgja eruption and the age of the Landbrot lava]. Natturufraedingurinn (in Icelandic). 57 (1): 1–20. 1987.
- Information on volcanism in the area
- Photos