Fin and flipper locomotion

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A species of mudskipper
(Periophthalmus gracilis)

sea turtles and mudskippers
use these two environments for different purposes, for example using the land for nesting, and the sea to hunt for food.

Aquatic locomotion with fins and flippers

Aquatic locomotion of fish

kinematic roles for different part of the fish's musculature. A curious example of fish adaption is the ocean sunfish, also known as the Mola mola.[2] These fish have undergone significant developmental changes reducing their spinal cord, giving them a disk like appearance, and investing in two very large fins for propulsion. This adaptation usually gives them the appearance that they are as long as they are tall. They are also amazing fish in that they hold the world record in weight gain from fry
to adult (60 million times its weight).

Aquatic locomotion of marine mammals

Swimming mammals, such as

pitch, roll, and yaw direction and are therefore not constrained, turning stochastically as they please.[4] It is hypothesized that the increased level of maneuverability is caused by their complex habitat. Hunting occurs in difficult environments containing rocky inshore/kelp forest communities, with many niches for prey to hide, therefore requiring speed and maneuverability for capture. The complex skills of a sea lion are learned early on in ontogeny and most are perfected by the time the pups reach one year.[5]
Whales and dolphins are less maneuverable and more constrained in their movements. However, dolphins are capable of accelerating as fast as sea lions, but they are not capable of turning as quickly and as efficiently. For both whales and dolphins, their center of gravity does not line up with their pectoral flippers in a straight line, causing a much more rigid and stable swimming pattern.

Aquatic locomotion of marine reptiles

Aquatic reptiles such as

sea turtles predominantly use their pectoral flippers to propulse through the water and their pelvic flippers for maneuvering. During swimming they move their pectoral flippers in a clapping motion underneath their body and pull them back up into an airplane position, causing forward motion. During the swimming motion it is really important that they rotate their front flipper in order to decrease drag through the water column and increase their efficiency.[6] Sea turtles exhibit a natural suite of behavior skills that help them direct themselves towards the ocean as well as identify the transition from sand to water after hatching. If rotated in the pitch, yaw or roll direction the hatchlings are capable of counteracting the forces acting upon them by correcting with either their pectoral or pelvic flippers and redirecting themselves towards the open ocean.[7]

Terrestrial locomotion

Terrestrial locomotion of fish

Mudskippers in The Gambia

Terrestrial locomotion poses new obstacles such as gravity and new media, including sand, mudd, twigs, logs, debris, grass and many more. Fins and flippers are aquatically adapted appendages and typically aren't very useful in such an environment. It could be hypothesized that fish would try to "swim" on land, but studies have shown that some fish evolved to cope with the terrestrial environment. Mudskippers, for example demonstrate a 'crutching' gait which enables them to 'walk' over muddy surfaces as well as dig burrows to hide in. Mudskippers are also able to jump up to 3 cm distances. This behavior is described as starting with a J-curvature of the body at about 2/3 of its body length (with its tail wrapped towards the head), followed by a straightening of their body which propulses them like a projectile through the air.[8] This behavior enables them to cope with the new environment and opens their habitat to new food sources as well as new predators.

Terrestrial locomotion of marine reptiles

Caretta caretta Jekyll Island, GA

Reptiles, such as sea turtles spend most of their lives in the ocean. However, their

Kemp's ridley
turtles which emerge all at once in one night only onto the beach to lay their nests.

See also

References

  1. ^ Flammang, B.E. and Lauder, G.V. 2008. Caudal fin shape modulation and control during acceleration, braking and backing maneuvers in bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus. JEB, 212: 277-286.
  2. ^ Watanabe, Y. and Sato, K. 2008. Functional dorsoventral symmetry in relation to Lift-based swimming in the Ocean Sunfish Mola mola. PLoS ONE 3(10): 1–7.
  3. ^ Godfrey, S.J. 1985. Additional observations of subaqueous locomotion in the California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus). Aquatic Mammals, 11.2: 53-57.
  4. ^ Fish, F.E., Hurley, J. and Costa, D.P. 2003. Maneuverablity by the sea lion Zalophus califonianus: turning performance of an unstable body design. JEB. 206: 667–674.
  5. ^ Chechina, O.N., Kovalenko, Y.V., Kulagina, O.A. and Mikhailenko, A.A. 2004. Development of locomotion in Sea Lions Eumetopias jubatus in Early Ontogenesis. J. Evol. BChem. and Physiol. 40(1): 55–59.
  6. ^ Renous, S. and Bels, V. 1993. Comparison between aquatic and terrestrial locomotion of the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). J. Zool. Lond. 230: 357–378.
  7. ^ Avens, L., Wang, J.H., Johnson, S., Dukes, P. and Lohman, K.J. 2003. Response of hatchling sea turtles to rotational displacement. JEB, 288: 111-124.
  8. ^ Swanson, B.O. and Gibb, A.C. 2004. Kinematics of aquatic and terrestrial escape responses in mudskippers. JEB, 207: 4037–4044.
  9. ^ Wyneken, J. 1997. Sea Turtle Locomotion: Mechanisms, Behavior, and Energetics. in CRC Press (edt. by Lutz, P.L. and Musick, J.A.) 165-198.

Further reading

  • Vogel, Steven (1994) Life in Moving Fluids: The physical biology of flow. 2nd edt. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
    ISBN 0-691-03485-0
  • McNeill Alexander, Robert. (2003) Principles of Animal Locomotion. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
    ISBN 0-691-08678-8

External links
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