Five precepts

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This article is about the five precepts in Buddhism. For Taoism, see
Five Precepts (Taoism). For the Indonesian philosophy, see Pancasila (politics)
.
Stone plaque with five precepts shortly described in English, engraved in the stone.
Plaque with the five precepts engraved in English, Lumbini, Nepal
Buddhist devotional practices
Devotional
Holidays
Precepts
Other
Translations of
five precepts
Tibetan
བསླབ་པ་ལྔ་ bslab pa lnga
TagalogLimang utos
(Baybayin: ᜎᜒᜋᜅ᜔ ᜂᜆᜓ︀ᜐ᜔)
Thaiเบญจศีล, ศีล ๕
(RTGS: Benchasin, Sin Ha)
Vietnamese五戒
Ngũ giới
Glossary of Buddhism

The five precepts (

deontological and virtue
approaches to ethics, though by 2017, such categorization by western terminology had mostly been abandoned by scholars. The precepts have been compared with human rights because of their universal nature, and some scholars argue they can complement the concept of human rights.

The five precepts were common to the religious milieu of 6th-century BCE India, but the Buddha's focus on

Early Buddhist Texts
, the precepts grew to be more important, and finally became a condition for membership of the Buddhist religion. When Buddhism spread to different places and people, the role of the precepts began to vary. In countries where Buddhism had to compete with other religions, such as China, the ritual of undertaking the five precepts developed into an initiation ceremony to become a Buddhist layperson. On the other hand, in countries with little competition from other religions, such as Thailand, the ceremony has had little relation to the rite of becoming Buddhist, as many people are presumed Buddhist from birth.

Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of

karmic retribution form the foundation of the precepts. Undertaking the five precepts is part of regular lay devotional practice, both at home and at the local temple. However, the extent to which people keep them differs per region and time. People keep them with an intention to develop themselves, but also out of fear of a bad rebirth
.

  1. The first precept consists of a prohibition of killing, both humans and all animals. Scholars have interpreted Buddhist texts about the precepts as an opposition to and prohibition of capital punishment,[8] suicide, abortion[9][10] and euthanasia.[11] In practice, however, many Buddhist countries still use the death penalty. With regard to abortion, Buddhist countries take the middle ground, by condemning though not prohibiting it fully. The Buddhist attitude to violence is generally interpreted as opposing all warfare, but some scholars have raised exceptions found in later texts.
  2. The second precept prohibits theft and related activities such as fraud and forgery.
  3. The third precept refers to sexual misconduct, and has been defined by modern teachers with terms such as sexual responsibility and long-term commitment.
  4. The fourth precept involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action, as well as malicious speech, harsh speech and gossip.
  5. The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs, or other means.[12][13] Early Buddhist Texts nearly always condemn alcohol, and so do Chinese Buddhist post-canonical texts. Smoking is sometimes also included here. Unlike other lay precepts such as abstinence from killing, theft, sexual misconduct, and ill-speech, the outlook on intoxication is much more forgiving. In the Sarakani sutta,[14] the Buddha is said to proclaim that Sarakani who 'took to drink' has attained stream-entry and was bound for Nirvana, on the basis that such a person merely even holds some of the Dharma in affectionate regard, even if they did not unwaveringly believe in the Buddha's Dharma.

In modern times, traditional Buddhist countries have seen revival movements to promote the five precepts. As for the West, the precepts play a major role in Buddhist organizations. They have also been integrated into mindfulness training programs, though many mindfulness specialists do not support this because of the precepts' religious import. Lastly, many conflict prevention programs make use of the precepts.

Role in Buddhist doctrine

Wheel with eight spokes, with the different aspects of the Buddhist eight-fold written on them
The Noble Eightfold Path, of which the five precepts are part.

Buddhist scriptures explain the five precepts as the minimal standard of Buddhist morality.

social values that bring harmony to society,[22][23] and breaches of the precepts described as antithetical to a harmonious society.[24] On a similar note, in Buddhist texts, the ideal, righteous society is one in which people keep the five precepts.[25]

Comparing different parts of Buddhist doctrine, the five precepts form the basis of the

most fundamental rules of monastic discipline (Pali: pārajika), and may have influenced their development.[31]

In conclusion, the five precepts lie at the foundation of all Buddhist practice, and in that respect, can be compared with the

ten commandments in Christianity and Judaism[6][7] or the ethical codes of Confucianism.[28]

History

The five precepts were part of

awareness (Pali: appamāda) was unique.[34]

In some schools of ancient Indic Buddhism, Buddhist devotees could choose to adhere to only a number of precepts, instead of the complete five. The schools that would survive in later periods, however, that is Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism, were both ambiguous about this practice. Some early Mahāyāna texts allow it, but some do not;

Theravāda texts do not discuss such selective practice at all.[37]

The prohibition on killing had motivated early Buddhists to form a stance against animal sacrifice, a common religious ritual practice in ancient India.[38][39] According to the Pāli Canon, however, early Buddhists did not adopt a vegetarian lifestyle.[26][39]

In

his teaching and the monastic community). Next, the precepts develop to become the foundation of lay practice.[40] The precepts are seen as a preliminary condition for the higher development of the mind.[1] At a third stage in the texts, the precepts are actually mentioned together with the triple gem, as though they are part of it. Lastly, the precepts, together with the triple gem, become a required condition for the practice of Buddhism, as laypeople have to undergo a formal initiation to become a member of the Buddhist religion.[31] When Buddhism spread to different places and people, the role of the precepts began to vary. In countries in which Buddhism was adopted as the main religion without much competition from other religious disciplines, such as Thailand, the relation between the initiation of a layperson and the five precepts has been virtually non-existent. In such countries, the taking of the precepts has become a sort of ritual cleansing ceremony. People are presumed Buddhist from birth without much of an initiation. The precepts are often committed to by new followers as part of their installment, yet this is not very pronounced. However, in some countries like China, where Buddhism was not the only religion, the precepts became an ordination ceremony to initiate laypeople into the Buddhist religion.[41]

8th-century China
, people held strict attitudes about abstinence of alcohol.

In China, the five precepts were introduced in the first centuries CE, both in their śrāvakayāna and bodhisattva formats.

medicine, a Daoist worldview, and Confucian virtue ethics.[46]

Ceremonies

In Pāli tradition

Asian person holding hands in prayer, facing two monks in brown robes.
In Thailand, a leading lay person will normally request the monk to administer the precepts.

In the Theravāda tradition, the precepts are recited in a standardized fashion, using

Pāli language
. In Thailand, a leading lay person will normally request the monk to administer the precepts by reciting the following three times:

"Venerables, we request the five precepts and the

three refuges [i.e. the triple gem] for the sake of observing them, one by one, separately". (Mayaṃ bhante visuṃ visuṃ rakkhaṇatthāya tisaraṇena saha pañca sīlāniyācāma.)[47]

After this, the monk administering the precepts will recite a reverential line of text to introduce the ceremony, after which he guides the lay people in declaring that they take their refuge in the three refuges or triple gem.[48]

He then continues with reciting the five precepts:[49][50]

  1. "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from onslaught on breathing beings." (
    Pali
    : Pāṇātipātā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.)
  2. "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from taking what is not given." (
    Pali
    : Adinnādānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.)
  3. "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from sexual misconduct." (
    Pali
    : Kāmesumicchācāra veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.)
  4. "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from false speech." (
    Pali
    : Musāvādā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.)
  5. "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from alcoholic drink or drugs that are an opportunity for heedlessness." (
    Pali
    : Surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.)

After the lay people have repeated the five precepts after the monk, the monk will close the ceremony reciting:

"These five precepts lead with good behavior to bliss, with good behavior to wealth and success, they lead with good behavior to happiness, therefore purify behavior." (Imāni pañca sikkhāpadāni. Sīlena sugatiṃ yanti, sīlena bhogasampadā, sīlena nibbutiṃ yanti, tasmā sīlaṃ visodhaye.)[51]

In other textual traditions

Chinese Buddhist Canon
. Plaque used at a zen center.
See also: Buddhist initiation ritual

The format of the ceremony for taking the precepts occurs several times in the

Chinese Buddhist Canon, in slightly different forms.[52]

One formula of the precepts can be found in the Treatise on Taking Refuge and the Precepts (simplified Chinese: 归戒要集; traditional Chinese: 歸戒要集; pinyin: Guījiè Yāojí):

  1. As all Buddhas refrained from killing until the end of their lives, so I too will refrain from killing until the end of my life.
  2. As all Buddhas refrained from stealing until the end of their lives, so I too will refrain from stealing until the end of my life.
  3. As all Buddhas refrained from sexual misconduct until the end of their lives, so I too will refrain from sexual misconduct until the end of my life.
  4. As all Buddhas refrained from false speech until the end of their lives, so I too will refrain from false speech until the end of my life.
  5. As all Buddhas refrained from alcohol until the end of their lives, so I too will refrain from alcohol until the end of my life.[53]

Similarly, in the

arahant).[49]

Principles

Precept Accompanying virtues[12][26] Related to human rights[54][55]
1. Abstention from killing
living beings
 Kindness and compassion Right to life
2. Abstention from theft
Generosity and renunciation
 Right of property
3. Abstention from sexual misconduct Contentment and respect for faithfulness Right to fidelity in marriage
4. Abstention from speaking lies (falsehood) Being honest and dependable Right of human dignity
5. Abstention from intoxication
Mindfulness
and responsibility 		Right of security and safety
Dark beings throw men with mustaches into a large cauldron with a huge fire underneath it.
Living a life in violation of the precepts is believed to lead to rebirth in a hell.

The five precepts can be found in many places in the Early Buddhist Texts.[56] The precepts are regarded as means to building good character, or as an expression of such character. The Pāli Canon describes them as means to avoid harm to oneself and others.[57] It further describes them as gifts toward oneself and others.[58] Moreover, the texts say that people who uphold them will be confident in any gathering of people,[16][59] will have wealth and a good reputation, and will die a peaceful death, reborn in heaven[49][59] or as a human being. On the other hand, living a life in violation of the precepts is believed to lead to rebirth in an unhappy destination.[16] They are understood as principles that define a person as human in body and mind.[60]

The precepts are normative rules, but are formulated and understood as "undertakings"

Sanskrit: ahiṃsa),[38][66] which underlies all of the five precepts.[26][note 5] Precisely, the texts say that one should keep the precepts, adhering to the principle of comparing oneself with others:[68]

"For a state that is not pleasant or delightful to me must be so to him also; and a state that is not pleasing or delightful to me, how could I inflict that upon another?"[69]

In other words, all living beings are alike in that they want to be happy and not suffer. Comparing oneself with others, one should therefore not hurt others as one would not want to be hurt.

Pali: anattā).[71] Another aspect that is fundamental to this is the belief in karmic retribution.[72]

Two pendants of amber
A layperson who upholds the precepts is described in the texts as a "jewel among laymen".

In the upholding or violation of the precepts,

offense of theft.[73] In the Pāli commentaries, a precept is understood to be violated when the person violating it finds the object of the transgression (e.g. things to be stolen), is aware of the violation, has the intention to violate it, does actually act on that intention, and does so successfully.[75]

Upholding the precepts is sometimes distinguished in three levels: to uphold them without having formally undertaken them; to uphold them formally, willing to sacrifice one's own life for it; and finally, to spontaneously uphold them.

hell. These consist of injuring a Buddha, killing an arahant, killing one's father or mother, and causing the monastic community to have a schism.[26]

Practice in general

Lay followers often undertake these training rules in the same ceremony as they

take the refuges.[4][79] Monks administer the precepts to the laypeople, which creates an additional psychological effect.[80] Buddhist lay people may recite the precepts regularly at home, and before an important ceremony at the temple to prepare the mind for the ceremony.[5][80]

Thich Nhat Hanh
wrote about the five precepts in a wider scope, with regard to social and institutional relations.

The five precepts are at the core of Buddhist morality.[50] In field studies in some countries like Sri Lanka, villagers describe them as the core of the religion.[80] Anthropologist Barend Terwiel found in his fieldwork that most Thai villagers knew the precepts by heart, and many, especially the elderly, could explain the implications of the precepts following traditional interpretations.[81]

However, Buddhists vary in how strict they follow them.

hell, or because they believe in that the Buddha issued these rules, and that they therefore should be maintained.[86][87] Anthropologist Melford Spiro found that Burmese Buddhists mostly upheld the precepts to avoid bad karma, as opposed to expecting to gain good karma.[88] Scholar of religion Winston King observed from his field studies that the moral principles of Burmese Buddhists were based on personal self-developmental motives rather than other-regarding motives. Scholar of religion Richard Jones concludes that the moral motives of Buddhists in adhering to the precepts are based on the idea that renouncing self-service, ironically, serves oneself.[89]

In East Asian Buddhism, the precepts are intrinsically connected with the initiation as a Buddhist lay person. Early Chinese translations such as the Upāsaka-śila Sūtra hold that the precepts should only be ritually transmitted by a monastic. The texts describe that in the ritual the power of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas is transmitted, and helps the initiate to keep the precepts. This "lay ordination" ritual usually occurs after a stay in a temple, and often after a

monastic ordination (Pali: upsampadā); has taken place. The ordained lay person is then given a religious name. The restrictions that apply are similar to a monastic ordination, such as permission from parents.[90]

In the Theravāda tradition, the precepts are usually taken "each separately" (Pali: visuṃ visuṃ), to indicate that if one precept should be broken, the other precepts are still intact. In very solemn occasions, or for very pious devotees, the precepts may be taken as a group rather than each separately.[91][92] This does not mean, however, that only some of the precepts can be undertaken; they are always committed to as a complete set.[93] In East Asian Buddhism, however, the vow of taking the precepts is considered a solemn matter, and it is not uncommon for lay people to undertake only the precepts that they are confident they can keep.[37] The act of taking a vow to keep the precepts is what makes it karmically effective: Spiro found that someone who did not violate the precepts, but did not have any intention to keep them either, was not believed to accrue any religious merit. On the other hand, when people took a vow to keep the precepts, and then broke them afterwards, the negative karma was considered larger than in the case no vow was taken to keep the precepts.[94]

Several modern teachers such as

Thich Nhat Hanh and Sulak Sivaraksa have written about the five precepts in a wider scope, with regard to social and institutional relations. In these perspectives, mass production of weapons or spreading untruth through media and education also violates the precepts.[95][96] On a similar note, human rights organizations in Southeast Asia have attempted to advocate respect for human rights by referring to the five precepts as guiding principles.[97]

First precept

Textual analysis

Mayfly on human finger
The first of the five precepts includes abstention from killing small animals such as insects.

The first precept prohibits the taking of life of a

Buddha nature of all human beings also underlies the first precept.[104]

The description of the first precept can be interpreted as a prohibition of capital punishment.

karmic consequences of abortion.[108][109] Bioethicist Damien Keown argues that Early Buddhist Texts do not allow for exceptions with regard to abortion, as they consist of a "consistent' (i.e. exceptionless) pro-life position".[110][10] Keown further proposes that a middle way approach to the five precepts is logically hard to defend.[111] Asian studies scholar Giulio Agostini argues, however, that Buddhist commentators in India from the 4th century onward thought abortion did not break the precepts under certain circumstances.[112]

karmic consequences of abortion.[109]

Ordering another person to kill is also included in this precept,

Dīgha Nikāya that says a person upholding the first precept "does not kill a living being, does not cause a living being to be killed, does not approve of the killing of a living being".[114] Keown argues that in Buddhist ethics, regardless of motives, death can never be the aim of one's actions.[115]

Interpretations of how Buddhist texts regard warfare are varied, but in general Buddhist doctrine is considered to oppose all warfare. In many Jātaka tales, such as that of

emptiness were misused to further an agenda of war or other violence.[121]

In practice

See also: Religion and capital punishment § Buddhism, and Abortion in Japan
Sign promoting vegetarianism at Key Monastery, Spiti, India

Field studies in Cambodia and Burma have shown that many Buddhists considered the first precept the most important, or the most blamable.

Kandal Province in pre-war Cambodia, as well as Burma in the 1980s, it was uncommon for Buddhists to slaughter animals, to the extent that meat had to be bought from non-Buddhists.[50][67] In his field studies in Thailand in the 1960s, Terwiel found that villagers did tend to kill insects, but were reluctant and self-conflicted with regard to killing larger animals.[122] In Spiro's field studies, however, Burmese villagers were highly reluctant even to kill insects.[67]

Early Buddhists did not adopt a

law of supply and demand or other principles, some Theravādin Buddhists have attempted to promote vegetarianism as part of the five precepts. For example, the Thai Santi Asoke movement practices vegetarianism.[63][124]

Furthermore, among some schools of Buddhism, there has been some debate with regard to a principle in the monastic discipline. This principle states that a Buddhist monk cannot accept meat if it comes from animals especially slaughtered for him. Some teachers have interpreted this to mean that when the recipient has no knowledge on whether the animal has been killed for him, he cannot accept the food either. Similarly, there has been debate as to whether laypeople should be vegetarian when adhering to the five precepts.

Mahāparanirvana Sūtra and the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, condemn the eating of meat.[12][125] Nevertheless, even among Mahāyāna Buddhists—and East Asian Buddhists—there is disagreement on whether vegetarianism should be practiced. In the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, biological, social and hygienic reasons are given for a vegetarian diet; however, historically, a major factor in the development of a vegetarian lifestyle among Mahāyāna communities may have been that Mahāyāna monastics cultivated their own crops for food, rather than living from alms.[126] Already from the 4th century CE, Chinese writer Xi Chao understood the five precepts to include vegetarianism.[125]

The Dalai Lama
The Dalai Lama has rejected forms of protest that are self-harming.[64]

Apart from trade in flesh or living beings, there are also other professions considered undesirable. Vietnamese teacher Thich Nhat Hanh gives a list of examples, such as working in the arms industry, the military, police, producing or selling poison or drugs such as alcohol and tobacco.[127]

In general, the first precept has been interpreted by Buddhists as a call for non-violence and pacifism. But there have been some exceptions of people who did not interpret the first precept as an opposition to war. For example, in the twentieth century, some Japanese Zen teachers wrote in support of violence in war, and some of them argued this should be seen as a means to uphold the first precept.

Shengyan have rejected forms of protest like self-immolation, as well as other acts of self-harming or fasting as forms of protest.[64]

Although capital punishment goes against the first precept, as of 2001, many countries in Asia still maintained the death penalty, including Sri Lanka, Thailand, China and Taiwan. In some Buddhist countries, such as Sri Lanka and Thailand, capital punishment was applied during some periods, while during other periods no capital punishment was used at all. In other countries with Buddhism, like China and Taiwan, Buddhism, or any religion for that matter, has had no influence in policy decisions of the government. Countries with Buddhism that have abolished capital punishment include Cambodia and Hong Kong.[129]

In general, Buddhist traditions oppose abortion.

moral dilemma. Buddhists tend to take "both sides" on the pro-life–pro-choice debate, being against the taking of life of a fetus in principle, but also believing in compassion toward mothers. Similar attitudes may explain the Japanese mizuko kuyō ceremony, a Buddhist memorial service for aborted children, which has led to a debate in Japanese society concerning abortion, and finally brought the Japanese to a consensus that abortion should not be taken lightly, though it should be legalized. This position, held by Japanese Buddhists, takes the middle ground between the Japanese neo-Shinto "pro-life" position, and the liberationist, "pro-choice" arguments.[130] Keown points out, however, that this compromise does not mean a Buddhist Middle Way between two extremes, but rather incorporates two opposite perspectives.[111] In Thailand, women who wish to have abortion usually do so in the early stages of pregnancy, because they believe the karmic consequences are less then. Having had abortion, Thai women usually make merits to compensate for the negative karma.[131]

Second precept

Textual analysis

One hand giving money to another hand, held behind a back.
Studies discovered that people who reported not adhering to the five precepts more often tended to pay bribes.

The second precept prohibits theft, and involves the intention to steal what one perceives as not belonging to oneself ("what is not given") and acting successfully upon that intention. The severity of the act of theft is judged by the worth of the owner and the worth of that which is stolen. Underhand dealings, fraud, cheating and forgery are also included in this precept.

right livelihood,[133] and a positive behavior is the protection of other people's property.[13]

In practice

The second precept includes different ways of stealing and fraud. Borrowing without permission is sometimes included,[63][81] as well as gambling.[81][134] Psychologist Vanchai Ariyabuddhiphongs did studies in the 2000s and 2010s in Thailand and discovered that people who did not adhere to the five precepts more often tended to believe that money was the most important goal in life, and would more often pay bribes than people who did adhere to the precepts.[135][136] On the other hand, people who observed the five precepts regarded themselves as wealthier and happier than people who did not observe the precepts.[137]

Professions that are seen to violate the second precept include working in the gambling industry or marketing products that are not actually required for the customer.[138]

Third precept

Textual analysis

The third precept condemns sexual misconduct. This has been interpreted in classical texts to include any form of sexual misconduct, which would therefore include inappropriate touching and speech, with a married or engaged person, fornication, rape, incest, sex with a minor (under 18 years, or a person "protected by any relative"), and sex with a prostitute.[139] In later texts, details such as intercourse at an inappropriate time or inappropriate place are also counted as breaches of the third precept.[140] Masturbation goes against the spirit of the precept, because of wrongful fantasy. As a manner of uncelibacy, it is not prohibited for laypeople.[141][142]

The third precept is explained as preventing profound spiritual damage to oneself and others. The transgression is regarded as more severe if the other person is a good person.[141][142] Virtues that go hand-in-hand with the third precept are contentment, especially with one's partner,[26][102] and recognition and respect for faithfulness in a marriage, and respect for the sexual nature of oneself and others.[13]

In practice

The third precept is interpreted as avoiding harm to another by using sexuality in the wrong way. This means not engaging with inappropriate partners, but also respecting one's personal commitment to a relationship.[63] In some traditions, the precept also condemns adultery with a person whose spouse agrees with the act, since the nature of the act itself is condemned. Furthermore, flirting with a married person may also be regarded as a violation.[81][139] Though prostitution is discouraged in the third precept, it is usually not actively prohibited by Buddhist teachers.[143] With regard to applications of the principles of the third precept, the precept, or any Buddhist principle for that matter, is usually not connected with a stance against contraception.[144][145] In traditional Buddhist societies such as Sri Lanka, pre-marital sex is considered to violate the precept, though this is not always adhered to by people who already intend to marry.[142][146]

In the interpretation of modern teachers, the precept includes any person in a sexual or a dependent relationship, for example as someone's child, with another person, as they define the precept by terms such as sexual responsibility and long-term commitment.[139] Some modern teachers include masturbation as a violation of the precept,[147] others include certain professions, such as those that involve sexual exploitation, prostitution or pornography, and professions that promote unhealthy sexual behavior, such as in the entertainment industry.[138]

Fourth precept

Textual analysis

The fourth precept involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action.

truth.[150][151]

In practice

The fourth precept includes avoidance of lying and harmful speech.[152] Some modern teachers such as Thich Nhat Hanh interpret this to include avoiding spreading false news and uncertain information.[147] Work that involves data manipulation, false advertising or online scams can also be regarded as violations.[138] Terwiel reports that among Thai Buddhists, the fourth precept is also seen to be broken when people insinuate, exaggerate or speak abusively or deceitfully.[81]

Fifth precept

Textual analysis

Glass of red wine
The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other means.[12]

The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other means, and its virtues are

Nāgārjuna's writings.[156] The strict interpretation of prohibition of alcohol consumption can be supported by the Upāli Sūtra's statement that a disciple of the Buddha should not drink any alcohol, "even a drop on the point of a blade of grass". However, in the writing of some Abhidharma commentators, consumption was condemned depending on the intention with which alcohol was consumed. An example of an intention which was not condemned is taking alcohol in a small amount as a form of medicine.[157]

In practice

The fifth precept is regarded as important, because drinking alcohol is condemned for the sluggishness and lack of self-control it leads to,[73][158] which might lead to breaking the other precepts.[19] In Spiro's field studies, violating the fifth precept was seen as the worst of all the five precepts by half of the monks interviewed, citing the harmful consequences.[19] Nevertheless, in practice it is often disregarded by lay people.[159] In Thailand, drinking alcohol is fairly common, even drunkenness.[160] Among Tibetans, drinking beer is common, though this is only slightly alcoholic.[156] Medicinal use of alcohol is generally not frowned upon,[146] and in some countries like Thailand and Laos, smoking is usually not regarded as a violation of the precept. Thai and Laotian monks have been known to smoke, though monks who have received more training are less likely to smoke.[44][161] On a similar note, as of 2000, no Buddhist country prohibited the sale or consumption of alcohol, though in Sri Lanka Buddhist revivalists unsuccessfully attempted to get a full prohibition passed in 1956.[44] Moreover, pre-Communist Tibet used to prohibit smoking in some areas of the capital. Monks were prohibited from smoking, and the import of tobacco was banned.[44]

Thich Nhat Hanh also includes mindful consumption in this precept, which consists of unhealthy food, unhealthy entertainment and unhealthy conversations, among others.[138][162]

Present trends

Woman giving a workshop in a classroom
Some scholars have proposed that the five precepts be introduced as a component in mindfulness training programs.

In modern times, adherence to the precepts among Buddhists is less strict than it traditionally was. This is especially true for the third precept. For example, in Cambodia in the 1990s and 2000s, standards with regard to sexual restraint were greatly relaxed.

Supreme Sangha Council in Thailand ran a nationwide program called "The Villages Practicing the Five Precepts", aiming to encourage keeping the precepts, with an extensive classification and reward system.[164][165]

In many Western Buddhist organizations, the five precepts play a major role in developing ethical guidelines.[166] Furthermore, Buddhist teachers such as Philip Kapleau, Thich Nhat Hanh and Robert Aitken have promoted mindful consumption in the West, based on the five precepts.[162] In another development in the West, some scholars working in the field of mindfulness training have proposed that the five precepts be introduced as a component in such trainings. Specifically, to prevent organizations from using mindfulness training to further an economical agenda with harmful results to its employees, the economy or the environment, the precepts could be used as a standardized ethical framework. As of 2015, several training programs made explicit use of the five precepts as secular, ethical guidelines. However, many mindfulness training specialists consider it problematic to teach the five precepts as part of training programs in secular contexts because of their religious origins and import.[167]

Peace studies scholar Theresa Der-lan Yeh notes that the five precepts address physical, economical, familial and verbal aspects of interaction, and remarks that many conflict prevention programs in schools and communities have integrated the five precepts in their curriculum. On a similar note, peace studies founder Johan Galtung describes the five precepts as the "basic contribution of Buddhism in the creation of peace".[168]

Theory of ethics

Man of age 82
Peace studies founder Johan Galtung describes the five precepts as the "basic contribution of Buddhism in the creation of peace".[168]

Studying lay and monastic ethical practice in traditional Buddhist societies, Spiro argued ethical guidelines such as the five precepts are adhered to as a means to a higher end, that is, a better rebirth or enlightenment. He therefore concluded that Buddhist ethical principles like the five precepts are similar to Western

deontological perspective in Buddhist ethics.[169][170] On the other hand, Keown has also suggested that Aristotle's virtue ethics could apply to Buddhist ethics, since the precepts are considered good in themselves, and mutually dependent on other aspects of the Buddhist path of practice.[64][171] Philosopher Christopher Gowans disagrees that Buddhist ethics are deontological, arguing that virtue and consequences are also important in Buddhist ethics. Gowans argues that there is no moral theory in Buddhist ethics that covers all conceivable situations such as when two precepts may be in conflict, but is rather characterized by "a commitment to and nontheoretical grasp of the basic Buddhist moral values".[172] As of 2017, many scholars of Buddhism no longer think it is useful to try to fit Buddhist ethics into a Western philosophical category.[173]

Comparison with human rights

Keown has argued that the five precepts are very similar to human rights, with regard to subject matter and with regard to their universal nature.[174] Other scholars, as well as Buddhist writers and human rights advocates, have drawn similar comparisons.[55][175] For example, the following comparisons are drawn:

  1. Keown compares the first precept with the right to life.[54] The Buddhism-informed Cambodian Institute for Human Rights (CIHR) draws the same comparison.[176]
  2. The second precept is compared by Keown and the CIHR with the right of property.[54][176]
  3. The third precept is compared by Keown to the "right to fidelity in marriage";[54] the CIHR construes this broadly as "right of individuals and the rights of society".[177]
  4. The fourth precept is compared by Keown with the "right not to be lied to";[54] the CIHR writes "the right of human dignity".[177]
  5. Finally, the fifth precept is compared by the CIHR with the right of individual security and a safe society.[177]

Keown describes the relationship between Buddhist precepts and human rights as "look[ing] both ways along the juridical relationship, both to what one is due to do, and to what is due to one".

golden rule of comparing oneself with others. (See §Principles, above.) From this discourse, Promta concludes that the Buddha has laid down the five precepts in order to protect individual rights such as right of life and property: human rights are implicit within the five precepts. Academic Buntham Phunsap argues, however, that though human rights are useful in culturally pluralistic societies, they are in fact not required when society is entirely based on the five precepts. Phunsap therefore does not see human rights as part of Buddhist doctrine.[179]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Also spelled as pañcasīlani and pañcasikkhāpadani, respectively.[1]
  2. right mindfulness.[19]
  3. ^ The 6th century CE Chāndogya Upaniśad contains four principles identical to the Buddhist precepts, but lying is not mentioned.[36] In contemporary Jainism, the fifth principle became "appropriation of any sort".[31]
  4. ^ This dual meaning in negative formulations is typical for an Indic language like Sanskrit.[65]
  5. loving-kindness, not "the Hindu notion of non-violence".[67]
  6. Brahmajala Sutta
    .

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References

External links

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