Peace and conflict studies

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v t e

Peace and conflict studies is a

, solutions.

In contrast with strategic studies or war studies, which focus on traditionally realist objectives based on the state or individual unit level of analysis, peace and conflict studies often focuses on the structural violence, social or human levels of analysis.

Disciplines involved may include

Historical background

Peace and conflict studies is both a pedagogical activity, in which teachers transmit knowledge to students; and a research activity, in which researchers create new knowledge about the sources of conflict.[3] Peace and conflict studies entails understanding the concept of peace which is defined as political condition that ensures justice and social stability through formal and informal institutions, practices, and norms.^[4]

Academics and students in the world's oldest universities have long been motivated by an interest in peace. American student interest in what we today think of as peace studies first appeared in the form of campus clubs at United States colleges in the years immediately following the American Civil War. Similar movements appeared in Sweden in the last years of the 19th century, as elsewhere soon after. These were student-originated discussion groups, not formal courses included in college curricula. The first known peace studies course in higher education was offered in 1888 at Swarthmore College, a Quaker school.

The

, whose remit was partly to further the cause of peace, occurred in 1919.

major

in peace studies.

After

Critical theory agendas relating to positive peace in European academic contexts were already widely debated in the 1960s.^[9] By the mid-1990s peace studies curricula in the United States had shifted "...from research and teaching about negative peace, the cessation of violence, to positive peace, the conditions that eliminate the causes of violence."^[7] As a result, the topics had broadened enormously. By 1994, a review of course offerings in peace studies included topics such as: "north-south relations"; "development, debt, and global poverty"; "the environment, population growth, and resource scarcity"; and "feminist perspectives on peace, militarism, and political violence".^[7]

There is now a general consensus on the importance of peace and conflict studies among scholars from a range of disciplines in and around the social sciences, as well as from many influential policymakers around the world. Peace and conflict studies today is widely researched and taught in a large and growing number of institutions and locations. The number of universities offering peace and conflict studies courses is hard to estimate, mostly because courses may be taught out of different departments and have very different names. The

supports several international academic teaching and research programs.

A 1995 survey found 136 United States colleges with peace studies programs: "Forty-six percent of these are in church-related schools, another 32% are in large public universities, 21% are in non-church related private colleges, and 1% are in community colleges. Fifty-five percent of the church-related schools that have peace studies programs are

Other notable programs can be found at the

University of Kabul

, on September 11, 2014 University of peshawar, the provincial capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in Pakistan established an Institute with prime objective of offering peace education to the youth who suffered it most since 1979 Afghan war. It is called Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (IPCS).

As research activity

Although individual thinkers such as

In 1963,

.

In 1964, the

In 2008, Strategic Foresight Group presented its report on an innovative mechanism to find sustainable solution to conflicts in the Middle East. It also developed a new Water Cooperation Quotient,^[15] which is a measure of active cooperation by riparian countries in the management of water resources using 10 parameters including legal, political, technical, environmental, economic and institutional aspects.

Institutions like Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) are advancing the understanding of peace and development by analyzing the complex drivers of conflict and insecurity. Their approach acknowledges that conflicts are rarely caused by a single factor. Instead, a constellation of economic, social, political, and environmental factors, often reinforcing and exacerbating each other in ways that can lead to sustained violence or, conversely, pave pathways to peace.^[16]

Peace and conflict studies along with its concepts of conflict analysis and conflict resolution^{[17][18][19][20][21]} can be classified as:

• Multidisciplinary, encompassing elements of
  International Relations, Sociology, Geography, Psychology, Anthropology and Economics
  .
• Multilevel. Peace studies examines intrapersonal peace, peace between individuals, neighbours, ethnic groups, marriages, states and civilisations.
• Multicultural.
  Gandhi
  is often cited as a paradigm of Peace Studies.
• Both
  normative
  . As a normative discipline, Peace Studies involves value judgements, such as "better" and "bad".
• Both theoretical and applied.[8]

There has been a long-standing debate on disarmament issues, as well as attempts to investigate, catalogue, and analyse issues relating to arms production, trade, and their political impacts.^[22] There have also been attempt to map the economic costs of war, or of relapses into violence, as opposed to those of peace.

Peace and conflict studies is now well established within the

: it comprises many scholarly journals, college and university departments, peace research institutes, conferences, as well as outside recognition of the utility of peace and conflict studies as a method.

Peace Studies allows one to examine the causes and prevention of war, as well as the nature of violence, including social oppression, discrimination and marginalization. Through peace studies one can also learn peace-making strategies to overcome persecution and transform society to attain a more just and equitable international community.

Feminist scholars have developed a speciality within conflict studies, specifically examining the role of gender and interlocking systems of inequality in armed and other conflicts.^[23][24] The importance of considering the role of gender in post-conflict work was recognised by the United Nations Security Council resolution 1325. Examples of feminist scholarship include the work of Carol Cohn and Claire Duncanson.

Negative peace refers to the absence of direct violence. Positive peace refers to the critical theory of conflict resolution and the absence of indirect and structural violence, and is the concept that most peace and conflict researchers adopt. This is often credited to Galtung^[25] but these terms were previously used by Martin Luther King Jr. in his "Letter from Birmingham Jail" in 1963, in which he wrote about "negative peace which is the absence of tension" and "positive peace which is the presence of justice." These terms were perhaps first used by Jane Addams in a series of lectures about 'positive ideals of peace' begun in 1899 that took form in her book Newer Ideals of Peace where she switched to the term "newer ideals", but continued to contrast them to the term "negative peace"; she described them as we think of them today, as peace with "a sense of justice no longer outraged." The idea was further popularized by then-UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali in his 1992 report An Agenda for Peace, published in the aftermath of the Cold War.^[26]

Several conceptions, models, or modes of peace have been suggested in which peace research might prosper.^[27]

• The crux of the matter is that peace is a natural social condition, whereas war is not. The premise is simple for peace researchers: to present enough information so that a rational group of decision makers will seek to avoid war and conflict.
• Second, the view that violence is sinful or unskillful, and that non-violence is skillful or virtuous and should be cultivated. This view is held by a variety of religious traditions worldwide: Quakers, Mennonites and other Peace churches within Christianity; Baháʼís, Jains, the Satyagraha tradition in Hinduism, Buddhism, and other portions of Indian religion and philosophy; as well as certain schools of Islam^{[citation needed]}.
• Third is pacifism: the view that peace is a prime force in human behaviour.
• A further approach is that there are multiple modes of peace.^[28]

There have been many offerings on these various forms of peace. These range from the well known works of

, liberal peace, sustainable peace, civil peace, hybrid peace, post-liberal peace, everyday peace, trans-rational peace(s) and other concepts are regularly used in such work.

Under the conceptions of peace, sustainable peace must be regarded as an important factor for the future of prosperity. Sustainable peace must be the priority of global society where state actors and non-state actors do not only seek for the profits in a near future that might violate the stable state of peace. For a sustainable peace, nurturing, empowerment, and communications are considered to be the crucial factors throughout the world. Firstly, nurturing is necessary to encourage psychological stability and emotional maturity. The significance of social value in adequate nurturing is important for sustainable peace. Secondly, in order to achieve real security and sustainable peace, inner security must be secured along with arranged social systems and protection based on firm foundation. Lastly, communications are necessary to overcome ignorance and isolation and establish a community based on reliable and useful information.^[33]

• Direct (overt) violence: for example, direct attacks and massacres.
• Structural violence: Structural violence is indirect violence caused by repressive, unequal and unjust social structures, not direct acts of violence or unavoidable causes of harm.
• Cultural violence: Cultural violence occurs as a result of the cultural assumptions that blind one to direct or structural violence. For example, one may be indifferent toward the homeless, or even consider their expulsion or extermination a good thing.

Each corner of Galtung's triangle can relate to the other two. Ethnic cleansing can be an example of all three.

A simplification of these can be phrased as:

• Direct violence: harming or hurting the body and mind.
• Structural violence: economic exploitation and political repression.
• Cultural violence: underlying values and epistemic models that legitimize direct and structural violence.^{[citation needed]}

Cost of conflict and price of unjust peace

Cost of conflict is a approach which attempts to calculate the price of conflicts. The idea is to examine this cost, not only in terms of the deaths and casualties and the economic costs borne by the people involved, but also the social, developmental, environmental and strategic costs of conflict. The approach considers direct costs of conflict, for instance human deaths, expenditure, destruction of land and physical infrastructure; as well as indirect costs that impact a society, for instance migration, humiliation, growth of extremism and lack of civil society. The price of unjust peace can be higher than the cost of conflict.^[37][38]

The

Critical theory

Prediction and forecasting

Conflict forecasts and early warnings can be sufficiently precise to be relevant for policy and evaluation of theories.[54] Conflict escalation can be rational for one side of the conflict in some cases of asymmetric conflicts,^[55] appeasement^[45] or for Fait accompli,^[56] causing challenges to de-escalation.

Since the beginning of the 2000s, technical advances in geolocation of violent events and spatial analyses have fostered the emergence of a large number of empirical studies carried out at the disaggregated scale of regions, cities or geographical units. A 2019 survey^[57] shows that the use of disaggregated data has led to methodological advances that are important in understanding the role played by poverty and natural resources in the emergence of civil conflicts. This evolution of statistical tools also draws promising research perspectives for contemporary and still widely debated issues such as climate change. Nevertheless, this gain in precision must not be at the expense of a better understanding of the regional and global issues that are also involved in the emergence of civil conflicts. Thus, the issues of trade and social cohesion still need to be deepened because they are explained at the level of groups whose dimension is poorly understood.

A subsequent 2024 meta-regression analysis examines the narratives researchers use to describe how various shocks affect internal conflict risk through channels implicitly linked to income.^[58] After examining 2,464 subnational estimates from 64 empirical studies, the analysis finds that several publication biases related to scholars' methodological choices influence our understanding of this phenomenon. Importantly, studies that do not uncover empirical effects aligning with researchers' expectations regarding theoretical mechanisms are less likely to be published. After accounting for publication selection bias, the analysis finds that, on average, income-increasing shocks in the agriculture sector are negatively associated with the local risk of conflict. However, the analysis finds no average effect of income-decreasing shocks in the agriculture sector or income-increasing shocks in the extractive sector on the local risk of conflict. This opens avenues for further study on the observed heterogeneity in the literature, particularly focusing on the conditional aspects of how shocks and conflicts are measured, as well as geographical coverage, among other factors.

armed forces

can provide one means to limit and ultimately resolve conflict.

The normative aims of peace studies are conflict transformation and conflict resolution through mechanisms such as peacekeeping, peacebuilding (e.g., tackling disparities in rights, institutions and the distribution of world wealth) and peacemaking (e.g., mediation and conflict resolution). Peacekeeping falls under the aegis of negative peace, whereas efforts toward positive peace involve elements of critical theory, peace building and peacemaking.^[61]

Peace and conflict are widely studied by militaries. One approach by military to prevent conflict and

argues for five principles that ought to undergird this undertaking, namely, respect but do not privilege military experience, teach the just war theory, encourage students to be aware of the tradition and techniques of nonviolence, encourage students to deconstruct and demythologize, and recognize the importance of military virtue.

A number of criticisms have been aimed at critical theory in peace and conflict studies, often but not necessarily from outside the realms of university system, including that peace studies:

• does not produce practical prescriptions for managing or resolving global conflicts because "
  objectivity and pragmatism";^{[citation needed}
  ]
• are focused on putting a "respectable face on Western
  self-loathing";^{[citation needed}
  ]
• are hypocritical because they "tacitly or openly support terrorism as a permissible strategy for the 'disempowered' to redress real or perceived grievances against the powerful" (i.e. ideological anti-Western concepts developed by social scientists such as Johan Galtung which arguably add a sense of unjustified acceptability which is used in support of radicalism);
• have curricula that are (according to human rights activist
  Caroline Cox and philosopher Roger Scruton) "intellectually incoherent, riddled with bias and unworthy of academic status...";^[64]
• have policies proposed to "eliminate the causes of violence" that are uniformly leftist policies, and not necessarily policies which would find broad agreement among social scientists.^[65]

In 1980, political scientist J. David Singer criticized peace research on three fronts:^[66]

1. Peace research contributed to creating a schism in research into the causes of war, thus making it harder to develop systematic research into war
2. "many peace researchers had the intellectual innocence of most bright amateurs; they underestimated the rate at which their research findings would become applicable and would be applied to major policy problems of the day."
3. many peace researchers failed to distinguish between objective research into the conditions of war and peace on one hand, and political action and propaganda in favor of specific policies

In the Summer 2007 edition of

Regarding his claim that Peace Studies supports violence in the pursuit of leftist ideology, Bawer cited a quote from Peace and Conflict Studies,^[68][69] a widely used 2002 textbook written by Charles P. Webel and David P. Barash which praised Vladimir Lenin because he "maintained that only revolution—not reform—could undo capitalism's tendency toward imperialism and thence to war."^[67]

Kay and Bawer also specifically criticized Professor Gordon Fellman, the Chairman of Brandeis University's Peace, Conflict, and Coexistence Studies Program, who they claimed has justified Palestinian suicide-bombings against Israelis as "ways of inflicting revenge on an enemy that seems unable or unwilling to respond to rational pleas for discussion and justice."^[67][71]

Responses

Such views have been strongly opposed by scholars who claim that these criticisms underestimate the development of detailed interdisciplinary, theoretical, methodological, and empirical research into the causes of violence and dynamics of peace that has occurred via academic and policy networks around the world.[8]

In reply to Barbara Kay's article, a group of Peace Studies experts in Canada responded that "Kay's...argument that the field of peace studies endorses terrorism is nonsense" and that "(d)edicated peace theorists and researchers are distinguished by their commitment to reduce the use of violence whether committed by enemy nations, friendly governments or warlords of any stripe." They also argued that:

...Ms. Kay attempts to portray advocates for peace as naive and idealistic, but the data shows that the large majority of armed conflicts in recent decades have been ended through negotiations, not military solutions. In the contemporary world, violence is less effective than diplomacy in ending armed conflict. Nothing is 100% effective to reduce tyranny and violence, but domestic and foreign strategy needs to be based on evidence, rather than assumptions and misconceptions from a bygone era.^[73]

Most academics in the area argue that the accusations are incorrect that peace studies approaches are not objective, and derived from mainly leftist or inexpert sources, are not practical, support violence rather than reject it, or have not led to policy developments.

The development of UN and major donor policies (including the EU, US, and UK, as well as many others including those of Japan, Canada, Norway, etc.) towards and in conflict and post-conflict countries have been heavily influenced by such debates. A range of key policy documents and responses have been developed by these governments in the last decade and more, and in UN (or related) documentation such as "Agenda for Peace", "Agenda for Development", "Agenda for Democratization", the

Finally, peace and conflict studies debates have generally confirmed, not undermined, a broad consensus (in developed world and the Global South) on the importance of human security, human rights, development, democracy, and a rule of law (though there is a vibrant debate ongoing about the contextual variations and applications of these frameworks).^[77] At the same time, the research field is characterized by a number of challenges including the tension between "the objective of doing critical research and being of practical relevance".^[78]

Sources and further reading

• Aron, Raymond, Peace and War: A Theory of International Relations, London: Transaction, 2003 [1966].
• Avruch, Kevin, Peter W. Black, and Joseph A. Scimecca (eds.), Conflict Resolution: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, London: Greenwood Press, 1991.
• Azar, Edward E., The Management of Protracted Social Conflict, Hampshire, UK: Dartmouth Publishing, 1990.
• Beer, Francis A., Meanings of War and Peace, College Station: Texas A & M University Press 2001.
• Beer, Francis, Peace Against War, San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1981.
• Bawer, Bruce, "The Peace Racket", City Journal, Summer 2007 link Archived 2011-07-23 at the Wayback Machine
• Burton, John W., and Edward E. Azar, International Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice, Sussex: Wheatsheaf Books, 1986.
• Caplan, Richard, International Governance of War-Torn Territories: Rule and Reconstruction, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
• Ceadal, M, Thinking about Peace and War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.
• Chandler, D. Empire in Denial: The Politics of State-Building. Pluto Press, 2006.
• Churchman, D. The Origins, Nature, and Management of Human Conflict. University Press of America, 2013.
• Cooper, Neil, "What's the Point of Arms Transfer Controls?", Contemporary Security Policy, Vol. 27, No. 1, April 2006 pp. 118–137.
• Jarat Chopra, and Tanja Hohe, "Participatory Intervention", Global Governance, Vol. 10, 2004.
• Darby, John, and Roger MacGinty, Contemporary Peacemaking, London: Palgrave, 2003.
• Wolfgang Dietrich, Josefina Eachavarría Alvarez, Norbert Koppensteiner eds.: Key Texts of Peace Studies; LIT Münster, Vienna, 2006.
• Wolfgang Dietrich, Daniela Ingruber, Josefina Echavarría, Gustavo Esteva and Norbert Koppensteiner (eds.): The Palgrave International Handbook of Peace Studies: A Cultural Perspective, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
• Dooley, Kevin L., and S.P. Udayakumar, "Reconceptualizing Global Conflicts: From Us Versus Them to Us Versus Then," Journal of Global Change and Governance, Vol. 2, No. 1, Spring 2009.
• Downes, Alexander B.; Sechser, Todd S. (2012). "The Illusion of Democratic Credibility". International Organization. 66 (3): 457–489.
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• Duffield, Mark, Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security, London: Zed Books, 2001.
• Dugan, M. 1989. "Peace Studies at the Graduate Level." The Annals of the American Academy of Political Science: Peace Studies: Past and Future, 504, 72–79.
• Dunn, DJ, The First Fifty Years of Peace Research, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005.
• Fukuyama, Francis, State Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-First Century, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004.
• Galtung, J., "A Structural Theory of Imperialism", Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1971.
• Galtung, Johan, and Carl G. Jacobsen, Searching for Peace: The Road to TRANSCEND, Pluto Press: London, 2000.
• Gibler, Douglas M.; Miller, Steven V. (2021). "The Territorial Peace: Current and Future Research". In McLaughlin, Sara; Vasquez, John A. (eds.). What do we know about War? (3 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 158–170.
• Harris, Ian, Larry J. Fisk, and Carol Rank. (1998). "A Portrait of University Peace Studies in North America and Western Europe at the End of the Millennium." International Journal of Peace Studies. Volume 3, Number 1. ISSN 1085-7494 link Archived 2008-10-26 at the Wayback Machine
• Hobson, Christopher (2017). "Democratic Peace: Progress and Crisis". Perspectives on Politics. 15 (3): 697–710.
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• Holmes, Robert L. Pacifism: A Philosophy of Nonviolence, London, Bloomsbury, 2017.
• Howard, M. The Invention of Peace and the Re-Invention of War, London: Profile, 2002.
• Jabri, Vivienne, Discourses on Violence, Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1996.
• Jabri, Vivienne, War and the Transformation of Global Politics, London: Palgrave, 2007.
• Keynes, John Maynard, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, London: Macmillan, 1920.
• Koppensteiner, Norbert: The Art of the Transpersonal Self. Transformation as Aesthetic and Energetic Practice; [ATROPOS] New York, Dresden, 2009.
• Kosaka, Masataka, International Politics and the Search for Peace, Tokyo: Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture, 2023 [1966]. link
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• Laville, C. (2019). "The Causes of Civil Conflicts: Recent Advances Using Disaggregated Data". Revue Francaise d’Economie. XXXIV (3): 123–165.
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• Laville, C.; Mandon, P. (2024). "Internal Conflicts and Shocks: A Narrative Meta-Analysis".
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• Lederach, J., Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies, Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 1997.
• López-Martínez, Mario (dir) Enciclopedia de paz y conflictos. Granada, 2004.
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• Lund, Michael S., "What Kind of Peace Is being Built: Taking Stock of Post-Conflict Peacebuilding and Charting Future Directions", Paper presented on the 10th Anniversary of Agenda for Peace, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada, January 2003.
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• Richmond, OP, The Transformation of Peace, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. ————
• Richmond, OP, and Jason Franks, Liberal Peace Transitions: Between Statebuilding and Peacebuilding, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009.
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• Routledge Contemporary Security Studies series: Women, Peace and Security: Translating Policy into Practice First published 2010. Introduction by 'Funmi Olonisakin, Director of Conflict, Security & Development Group, King's College London, and Karen Barnes. Chapter by Lesley Abdela 'Nepal and the implementation of UNSCR1325'.
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• Taylor, Paul, and A.J.R. Groom (eds.), The UN at the Millennium, London: Continuum, 2000.
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• Zartman, William, and Lewis Rasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques, Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997.

External links

• International Institute of Social History. "War and Peace Collection Guide". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
• "Peace and Conflict Studies (International Joint Award)". Philipps-University Marburg, University of Kent.
• Interview with Werner Wintersteiner on peace education

Library guides to peace studies

• Cornell University, New York, USA
• Michigan State University, USA
• University of Missouri, USA
• New York University, USA