Buddhist meditation
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Buddhist meditation is the practice of
While these techniques are used across
Etymology
The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are
Possible influence from pre-Buddhist India
Modern Buddhist studies have attempted to reconstruct the meditation practices of
According to Indologist Johannes Bronkhorst, "the teaching of the Buddha as presented in the early canon contains a number of contradictions,"[8] presenting "a variety of methods that do not always agree with each other,"[9] containing "views and practices that are sometimes accepted and sometimes rejected."[8] These contradictions are due to the influence of non-Buddhist traditions on early Buddhism. One example of these non-Buddhist meditative methods found in the early sources is outlined by Bronkhorst:
The
According to Bronkhorst, such practices which are based on a "suppression of activity" are not authentically Buddhist, but were later adopted from the Jains by the Buddhist community.
The two major traditions of meditative practice in pre-Buddhist India were the
Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Early Buddhism, as it existed before the development of various schools, is called pre-sectarian Buddhism. Its meditation-techniques are described in the Pali Canon and the Chinese Agamas.
Preparatory practices
Meditation and contemplation are preceded by preparatory practices.
Sati/smrti (mindfulness)
An important quality to be cultivated by a Buddhist meditator is mindfulness (sati). Mindfulness is a polyvalent term which refers to remembering, recollecting and "bearing in mind". It also relates to remembering the teachings of the Buddha and knowing how these teachings relate to one's experiences. The Buddhist texts mention different kinds of mindfulness practice.
The Pali
According to
Bronkhorst (1985) also argues that the earliest form of the satipaṭṭhāna sutta only contained the observation of the impure body parts under mindfulness of the body, and that mindfulness of dhammas was originally just the observation of the seven awakening factors.[18][note 7] Sujato's reconstruction similarly only retains the contemplation of the impure under mindfulness of the body, while including only the five hindrances and the seven awakening factors under mindfulness of dhammas.[19][note 8] According to Analayo, mindfulness of breathing was probably absent from the original scheme, noting that one can easily contemplate the body's decay taking an external object, that is, someone else's body, but not be externally mindfull of the breath, that is, someone else's breath. [20]
According to Grzegorz Polak, the four upassanā have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations of which one should be aware, but are an alternate description of the jhanas, describing how the samskharas are tranquilized:[21]
- the six sense-baseswhich one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā);
- contemplation on vedanās, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā);
- the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā);
- the development from the seven factors of enlightenment(dhammānupassanā).
Anussati (recollections)
Asubha bhavana (reflection on unattractiveness)
Asubha bhavana is reflection on "the foul"/unattractiveness (Pāli: asubha). It includes two practices, namely cemetery contemplations, and Paṭikkūlamanasikāra, "reflections on repulsiveness". Patikulamanasikara is a Buddhist meditation whereby thirty-one parts of the body are contemplated in a variety of ways. In addition to developing sati (mindfulness) and samādhi (concentration, dhyana), this form of meditation is considered to be conducive to overcoming desire and lust.[24]
Anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing)
Anapanasati, mindfulness of breathing, is a core meditation practice in Theravada, Tiantai and Chan traditions of Buddhism as well as a part of many mindfulness programs. In both ancient and modern times, anapanasati by itself is likely the most widely used Buddhist method for contemplating bodily phenomena.[25]
The Ānāpānasati Sutta specifically concerns mindfulness of inhalation and exhalation, as a part of paying attention to one's body in quietude, and recommends the practice of anapanasati meditation as a means of cultivating the
Dhyāna/jhāna
Many scholars of early Buddhism, such as Vetter, Bronkhorst and Anālayo, see the practice of jhāna (Sanskrit: dhyāna) as central to the meditation of Early Buddhism.
[P]robably the word "immortality" (a-mata) was used by the Buddha for the first interpretation of this experience and not the term cessation of suffering that belongs to the four noble truths [...] the Buddha did not achieve the experience of salvation by discerning the four noble truths and/or other data. But his experience must have been of such a nature that it could bear the interpretation "achieving immortality".[26]
Alexander Wynne agrees that the Buddha taught a kind of meditation exemplified by the four dhyanas, but argues that the Buddha adopted these from the Brahmin teachers Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta, though he did not interpret them in the same Vedic cosmological way and rejected their Vedic goal (union with Brahman). The Buddha, according to Wynne, radically transformed the practice of dhyana which he learned from these Brahmins which "consisted of the adaptation of the old yogic techniques to the practice of mindfulness and attainment of insight".[27] For Wynne, this idea that liberation required not just meditation but an act of insight, was radically different from the Brahminic meditation, "where it was thought that the yogin must be without any mental activity at all, ‘like a log of wood’."[28]
Four rupa-jhanas
Qualities
In the sutras, jhāna is entered when one 'sits down cross-legged and establishes mindfulness'. According to Buddhist tradition, it may be supported by
- First jhāna:
- vitarka-vicara (traditionallly, initial and sustained attention to a meditative object; alternatively, initial inquiry and subsequent investigation[34][35][36] of dhammas (defilements[37] and wholesome thoughts[38][note 11]); also: "discursive thought"[note 12]).
- Second jhāna:
- Again, with the stilling of vitarka-vicara, a bhikkhu enters upon and abides in the second jhana, which is [mental] pīti and [bodily] sukha "born of vitarka-vicara;
- Again, with the stilling of vitarka-vicara, a bhikkhu enters upon and abides in the second jhana, which is [mental] pīti and [bodily] sukha "born of
- Third jhāna:
- With the fading away of pīti, a bhikkhu abides in ). [Still] experiencing sukha with the body, he enters upon and abides in the third jhana, on account of which the noble ones announce, "abiding in [bodily] pleasure, one is equanimous and mindful".
- Fourth jhāna:
- With the abandoning of [the desire for] sukha ("pleasure") and [aversion to] equanimity and mindfulness).[note 16]
- With the abandoning of [the desire for] sukha ("pleasure") and [aversion to]
Interpretation
According to Richard Gombrich, the sequence of the four rupa-jhanas describes two different cognitive states.[56][note 17][57] Alexander Wynne further explains that the dhyana-scheme is poorly understood.[58] According to Wynne, words expressing the inculcation of awareness, such as sati, sampajāno, and upekkhā, are mistranslated or understood as particular factors of meditative states,[58] whereas they refer to a particular way of perceiving the sense objects.[58][note 18][note 19] Polak notes that the qualities of the jhanas resemble the bojjhaṅgā, the seven factors of awakening]], arguing that both sets describe the same essential practice.[15] Polak further notes, elaborating on Vetter, that the onset of the first dhyana is described as a quite natural process, due to the preceding efforts to restrain the senses and the nurturing of wholesome states.[15][14]
Arupas
In addition to the four
- The Dimension of infinite space (Pali ākāsānañcāyatana, Skt. ākāśānantyāyatana),
- The Dimension of infinite consciousness (Pali viññāṇañcāyatana, Skt. vijñānānantyāyatana),
- The Dimension of infinite nothingness (Pali ākiñcaññāyatana, Skt. ākiṃcanyāyatana),
- The Dimension of neither perception nor non-perception (Pali nevasaññānāsaññāyatana, Skt. naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana).
- Nirodha-samāpatti, also called saññā-vedayita-nirodha, 'extinction of feeling and perception'.
These formless jhanas may have been incorporated from non-Buddhist traditions.[3][62]
Jhana and insight
Various early sources mention the attainment of insight after having achieved jhana. In the Mahasaccaka Sutta, dhyana is followed by insight into the four noble truths. The mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight" is probably a later addition.
Brahmavihāra
Another important meditation in the early sources are the four Brahmavihāra (divine abodes) which are said to lead to cetovimutti, a “liberation of the mind”.[71] The four Brahmavihāra are:
- Compassion (Pāli and Sanskrit: karuṇā) results from metta, it is identifying the suffering of others as one's own;[72][73]
- Empathetic joy (Pāli and Sanskrit: muditā): is the feeling of joy because others are happy, even if one did not contribute to it, it is a form of sympathetic joy;[72]
According to Anālayo:
The effect of cultivating the brahmavihāras as a liberation of the mind finds illustration in a simile which describes a conch blower who is able to make himself heard in all directions. This illustrates how the brahmavihāras are to be developed as a boundless radiation in all directions, as a result of which they cannot be overruled by other more limited karma.[74]
The practice of the four divine abodes can be seen as a way to overcome ill-will and sensual desire and to train in the quality of deep concentration (samadhi).[75]
Early Buddhism
Traditionally, Eighteen schools of Buddhism are said to have developed after the time of the Buddha. The Sarvastivada school was the most influential, but the Theravada is the only school that still exists.
Samatha (serenity) and vipassana (insight)
The Buddha is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice:
- "serenity" or "tranquillity" (Pali: samatha; Sanskrit: samadhi) which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind;
- "insight" (Pali: vipassanā) which enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates).[note 20]
The Buddha is said to have extolled serenity and insight as conduits for attaining Nibbana (Pali; Skt.: Nirvana), the unconditioned state as in the "Kimsuka Tree Sutta" (SN 35.245), where the Buddha provides an elaborate metaphor in which serenity and insight are "the swift pair of messengers" who deliver the message of Nibbana via the Noble Eightfold Path.[note 21]
In the
In the
In the "Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta" (AN 4.170), Ven.
- they develop serenity and then insight (Pali: samatha-pubbangamam vipassanam)
- they develop insight and then serenity (Pali: vipassana-pubbangamam samatham)
- they develop serenity and insight in tandem (Pali: samatha-vipassanam yuganaddham) as in, for instance, obtaining the first jhana, and then seeing in the associated aggregates the three marks of existence, before proceeding to the second jhana.[78]
While the Nikayas state that the pursuit of vipassana can precede the pursuit of samatha, according to the Burmese
Theravāda
Sutta Pitaka and early commentaries
The oldest material of the
Buddhaghosa
An early Theravāda meditation manual is the
The Visuddhimagga's doctrine reflects Theravāda Abhidhamma scholasticism, which includes several innovations and interpretations not found in the earliest discourses (suttas) of the Buddha.[82][83] Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga includes non-canonical instructions on Theravada meditation, such as "ways of guarding the mental image (nimitta)," which point to later developments in Theravada meditation.[84]
The text is centered around
The Visuddhimagga describes forty meditation subjects, most being described in the early texts.[86] Buddhaghoṣa advises that, for the purpose of developing concentration and consciousness, a person should "apprehend from among the forty meditation subjects one that suits his own temperament" with the advice of a "good friend" (kalyāṇa-mittatā) who is knowledgeable in the different meditation subjects (Ch. III, § 28).[87] Buddhaghoṣa subsequently elaborates on the forty meditation subjects as follows (Ch. III, §104; Chs. IV–XI):[88]
- ten kasinas: earth, water, fire, air, blue, yellow, red, white, light, and "limited-space".
- ten kinds of foulness: "the bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested, and a skeleton".
- ten recollections: Buddhānussati, the Dhamma, the Sangha, virtue, generosity, the virtues of deities, death (see the Upajjhatthana Sutta), the body, the breath (see anapanasati), and peace (see Nibbana).
- upekkha.
- four immaterial states: boundless space, boundless perception, nothingness, and neither perception nor non-perception.
- one perception (of "repulsiveness in nutriment")
- one "defining" (that is, the four elements)
When one overlays Buddhaghosa's 40 meditative subjects for the development of concentration with the Buddha's foundations of mindfulness, three practices are found to be in common: breath meditation, foulness meditation (which is similar to the Sattipatthana Sutta's cemetery contemplations, and to contemplation of bodily repulsiveness), and contemplation of the four elements. According to Pali commentaries, breath meditation can lead one to the equanimous fourth jhanic absorption. Contemplation of foulness can lead to the attainment of the first jhana, and contemplation of the four elements culminates in pre-jhana access concentration.[89]
Contemporary Theravāda
Vipassana and/or samatha
The role of samatha in Buddhist practice, and the exact meaning of samatha, are points of contention and investigation in contemporary Theravada and western vipassanan. Burmese vipassana teachers have tended to disregard samatha as unnecessary, while Thai teachers see samatha and vipassana as intertwined.
The exact meaning of samatha is also not clear, and westerners have started to question the received wisdom on this.[15][5] While samatha is usually equated with the jhanas in the commentarial tradition, scholars and practitioners have pointed out that jhana is more than a narrowing of the focus of the mind. While the second jhana may be characterized by samadhi-ji, "born of concentration," the first jhana sets in quite naturally as a result of sense-restraint,[14][15] while the third and fourth jhana are characterized by mindfulness and equanimity.[3][62][15] Sati, sense-restraint and mindfulness are necessary preceding practices, while insight may mark the point where one enters the "stream" of development which results in vimukti, release.[90]
According to Anālayo, the jhanas are crucial meditative states which lead to the abandonment of hindrances such as lust and aversion; however, they are not sufficient for the attainment of liberating insight. Some early texts also warn meditators against becoming attached to them, and therefore forgetting the need for the further practice of insight.[91] According to Anālayo, "either one undertakes such insight contemplation while still being in the attainment, or else one does so retrospectively, after having emerged from the absorption itself but while still being in a mental condition close to it in concentrative depth."[92]
The position that insight can be practiced from within jhana, according to the early texts, is endorsed by Gunaratna, Crangle and Shankaman.[93][94][95] Anālayo meanwhile argues, that the evidence from the early texts suggest that "contemplation of the impermanent nature of the mental constituents of an absorption takes place before or on emerging from the attainment".[96]
Arbel has argued that insight precedes the practice of jhana.[5]
Vipassana movement
Particularly influential from the twentieth century onward has been the Burmese
There are also other less well known Burmese meditation methods, such as the system developed by
Thai Forest tradition
Also influential is the
Other forms
There are other less mainstream forms of Theravada meditation practiced in Thailand which include the vijja dhammakaya meditation developed by Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro and the meditation of former supreme patriarch Suk Kai Thuean (1733–1822).[99] Newell notes that these two forms of modern Thai meditation share certain features in common with tantric practices such as the use of visualizations and centrality of maps of the body.[99]
A less common type of meditation is practiced in Cambodia and Laos by followers of
Sarvāstivāda
The now defunct
According to K.L. Dhammajoti, the Sarvāstivāda meditation practitioner begins with
- contemplation on the impure (asubhabhavana), for the greedy type person.
- meditation on loving kindness(maitri), for the hateful type
- contemplation on conditioned co-arising, for the deluded type
- contemplation on the division of the dhatus, for the conceited type
- mindfulness of breathing (anapanasmrti), for the distracted type.[101]
Contemplation of the impure, and mindfulness of breathing, was particularly important in this system; they were known as the 'gateways to immortality' (amrta-dvāra).
- counting the breaths up to ten,
- following the breath as it enters through the nose throughout the body,
- fixing the mind on the breath,
- observing the breath at various locations,
- modifying is related to the practice of the four applications of mindfulness and
- purifying stage of the arising of insight.[103]
This sixfold breathing meditation method was influential in East Asia, and expanded upon by the Chinese Tiantai meditation master Zhiyi.[101]
After the practitioner has achieved tranquility, Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma then recommends one proceeds to practice the four applications of mindfulness (smrti-upasthāna) in two ways. First they contemplate each specific characteristic of the four applications of mindfulness, and then they contemplate all four collectively.[104]
In spite of this systematic division of samatha and vipasyana, the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharmikas held that the two practices are not mutually exclusive. The
Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism
Mahāyāna practice is centered on the path of the bodhisattva, a being which is aiming for full Buddhahood. Meditation (dhyāna) is one of the transcendent virtues (paramitas) which a bodhisattva must perfect in order to reach Buddhahood, and thus, it is central to Mahāyāna Buddhist praxis.
Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism was initially a network of loosely connected groups and associations, each drawing upon various
Textual evidence shows that many Mahāyāna Buddhists in northern India as well as in
In the Prajñāpāramitā literature
The
He does not cling to the disciples’ level or the level of Solitary Buddhas. On the contrary, it occurs to him, ‘Having intently practised the perfection of contemplation, my duty here [in this world] is to liberate all beings from the cycle of rebirths.’[116]
Innovative meditation methods
Various Indian Mahāyāna texts show new innovative methods which were unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism. Texts such as the Pure Land sutras, the Akṣobhya-vyūha Sūtra and the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra teach meditations on a particular Buddha (such as Amitābha or Akshobhya). Through the repetition of their name or some other phrase and certain visualization methods, one is said to be able to meet a Buddha face to face or at least to be reborn in a Buddha field (also known as "Pure land") like Abhirati and Sukhavati after death.[117][118] The Pratyutpanna sutra for example, states that if one practices recollection of the Buddha (Buddhānusmṛti) by visualizing a Buddha in their Buddha field and developing this samadhi for some seven days, one may be able to meet this Buddha in a vision or a dream so as to learn the Dharma from them.[119] Alternatively, being reborn in one of their Buddha fields allows one to meet a Buddha and study directly with them, allowing one to reach Buddhahood faster. A set of sutras known as the Visualization Sutras also depict similar innovative practices using mental imagery. These practices been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sutras which are seen traditionally as direct visionary revelations from the Buddhas in their pure lands.[120]
Another popular Mahayana practice was the memorization and recitation of various texts, such as
Later Yogācāra sources also indicate that Mahayanists had begun to see their meditation methods as unique and different from Śrāvakayānist (i.e. non-Mahayana Buddhists) methods. For example, the Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra criticizes certain early Buddhist meditations as not suitable for Mahayanists, who instead focus their meditation on the true nature of things (suchness, tathatā).[124] The Āryasaṃdhinirmocanabhāṣya, a commentary attributed to Asaṅga, comments:
In the Śrāvakayāna, one thoroughly knows (*parijānāti) the Truth of Suffering, and so on [i.e. the other Truths], while in the Mahāyāna, one thoroughly knows [the Truths] through Suchness (*tathatā), etc.’[125]
According to Florin Delenau, "the text contrasts, I believe, the Śrāvakayānika analytical, highly reflective approach to the Mahāyānika synthetic, ultimately intuitive insight into the essence of the Reality. "[125]
A later
Another late Indian
East Asian Mahāyāna
The meditation forms practiced during the initial stages of Chinese Buddhism did not differ much from those of Indian Mahayana Buddhism, though they did contain developments that could have arisen in Central Asia.
The works of the Chinese translator
East Asian Yogācāra methods
The East Asian Yogācāra school or "Consciousness only school" (Ch. Wéishí-zōng), known in Japan as the Hossō school was a very influential tradition of Chinese Buddhism. They practiced several forms of meditation. According to Alan Sponberg, they included a class of visualization exercises, one of which centered on constructing a mental image of the Bodhisattva (and presumed future Buddha) Maitreya in Tusita heaven. A biography the Chinese Yogācāra master and translator Xuanzang depicts him practicing this kind of meditation. The goal of this practice seems to have been rebirth in Tusita heaven, so as to meet Maitreya and study Buddhism under him.[131]
Another method of meditation practiced in Chinese Yogācāra is called "the five level discernment of
- "dismissing the false - preserving the real" (ch 'ien-hsu ts'un-shih)
- "relinquishing the diffuse - retaining the pure" (she-lan liu-ch 'un)
- "gathering in the extensions - returning to the source" (she-mo kuei-pen)
- "suppressing the subordinate - manifesting the superior" (yin-lueh hsien-sheng)
- "dismissing the phenomenal aspects - realizing the true nature" (ch 'ien-hsiang cheng-hsing)
Tiantai śamatha-vipaśyanā
In China it has been traditionally held that the meditation methods used by the Tiantai school are the most systematic and comprehensive of all.[134] In addition to its doctrinal basis in Indian Buddhist texts, the Tiantai school also emphasizes use of its own meditation texts which emphasize the principles of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Of these texts, Zhiyi's Concise Śamathavipaśyanā (小止観), Mohe Zhiguan (摩訶止観, Sanskrit Mahāśamathavipaśyanā), and Six Subtle Dharma Gates (六妙法門) are the most widely read in China.[134] Rujun Wu identifies the work Mahā-śamatha-vipaśyanā of Zhiyi as the seminal meditation text of the Tiantai school.[135] Regarding the functions of śamatha and vipaśyanā in meditation, Zhiyi writes in his work Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā:
The attainment of Nirvāṇa is realizable by many methods whose essentials do not go beyond the practice of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Śamatha is the first step to untie all bonds and vipaśyanā is essential to root out delusion. Śamatha provides nourishment for the preservation of the knowing mind, and vipaśyanā is the skillful art of promoting spiritual understanding. Śamatha is the unsurpassed cause of samādhi, while vipaśyanā begets wisdom.[136]
The Tiantai school also places a great emphasis on
Esoteric practices in Japanese Tendai
One of the adaptations by the Japanese Tendai school was the introduction of Mikkyō (esoteric practices) into Tendai Buddhism, which was later named Taimitsu by Ennin. Eventually, according to Tendai Taimitsu doctrine, the esoteric rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the exoteric teachings of the Lotus Sutra. Therefore, by chanting mantras, maintaining mudras, or performing certain meditations, one is able to see that the sense experiences are the teachings of Buddha, have faith that one is inherently an enlightened being, and one can attain enlightenment within this very body. The origins of Taimitsu are found in China, similar to the lineage that Kūkai encountered in his visit to Tang China and Saichō's disciples were encouraged to study under Kūkai.[138]
Huayan meditation theory
The Huayan school was a major school of Chinese Buddhism, which also strongly influenced Chan Buddhism. An important element of their meditation theory and practice is what was called the "Fourfold Dharmadhatu" (sifajie, 四法界).[139] Dharmadhatu (法界) is the goal of the bodhisattva's practice, the ultimate nature of reality or deepest truth which must be known and realized through meditation. According to Fox, the Fourfold Dharmadhatu is "four cognitive approaches to the world, four ways of apprehending reality". Huayan meditation is meant to progressively ascend through these four "increasingly more holographic perspectives on a single phenomenological manifold."
These four ways of seeing or knowing reality are:[139]
- All dharmas are seen as particular separate events or phenomena (shi 事). This is the mundane way of seeing.
- All events are an expression of li (理, the absolute, principle or Buddha nature. This level of understanding or perspective on reality is associated with the meditation on "true emptiness".
- Shi and Li interpenetrate(lishi wuai 理事無礙), this is illuminated by the meditation on the "non-obstruction of principle and phenomena."
- All events interpenetrate (shishi wuai 事事無礙), "all distinct phenomenal dharmas interfuse and penetrate in all ways" (Zongmi). This is seen through the meditation on “universal pervasion and complete accommodation.”
According to
Pure land Buddhism
In
Repeating the Pure Land Rebirth dhāraṇī is another method in Pure Land Buddhism. Similar to the mindfulness practice of repeating the name of Amitābha Buddha, this dhāraṇī is another method of meditation and recitation in Pure Land Buddhism. The repetition of this dhāraṇī is said to be very popular among traditional Chinese Buddhists.[142]
Another practice found in Pure Land Buddhism is meditative contemplation and visualization of Amitābha, his attendant bodhisattvas, and the Pure Land. The basis of this is found in the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra ("Amitābha Meditation Sūtra").[143]
Chán
During sitting meditation (坐禅,
Another common form of sitting meditation is called "Silent illumination" (Ch. mòzhào, Jp. mokushō). This practice was traditionally promoted by the
During the
In the Japanese
Tantric Buddhism
In
Other forms of meditation in Tibetan Buddhism include the
Therapeutic uses of meditation
Meditation based on Buddhist meditation principles has been practiced by people for a long time for the purposes of effecting mundane and worldly benefit.
The accounts of meditative states in the Buddhist texts are in some regards free of dogma, so much so that the Buddhist scheme has been adopted by Western psychologists attempting to describe the phenomenon of meditation in general.
Key terms
English | Pali | Sanskrit | Chinese | Tibetan |
---|---|---|---|---|
mindfulness/awareness | sati | smṛti
|
念 (niàn) | དྲན་པ། (wylie: dran pa) |
clear comprehension | sampajañña | samprajaña | 正知力 (zhèng zhī lì) | ཤེས་བཞིན། shezhin (shes bzhin) |
vigilance/heedfulness | appamada
|
apramāda
|
不放逸座 (bù fàng yì zuò) | བག་ཡོད། bakyö (bag yod) |
ardency | atappa | ātapaḥ | 勇猛 (yǒng měng) | nyima (nyi ma) |
attention/engagement | manasikara
|
manaskāraḥ
|
如理作意 (rú lǐ zuò yì) | ཡིད་ལ་བྱེད་པ། yila jepa (yid la byed pa) |
foundation of mindfulness | satipaṭṭhāna
|
smṛtyupasthāna | 念住 (niànzhù) | དྲན་པ་ཉེ་བར་བཞག་པ། trenpa neybar zhagpa (dran pa nye bar gzhag pa) |
mindfulness of breathing | ānāpānasati
|
ānāpānasmṛti | 安那般那 (ānnàbānnà) | དབུགས་དྲན་པ། wūk trenpa (dbugs dran pa) |
calm abiding/cessation | samatha
|
śamatha | 止 (zhǐ) | ཞི་གནས། shiney (zhi gnas) |
insight/contemplation | vipassanā
|
vipaśyanā | 観 (guān) | ལྷག་མཐོང་། (lhag mthong) |
meditative concentration | samādhi
|
samādhi | 三昧 (sānmèi) | ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན། ting-nge-dzin (ting nge dzin) |
meditative absorption | jhāna
|
dhyāna
|
禪 (chán) | བསམ་གཏན། samten (bsam gtan) |
cultivation | bhāvanā
|
bhāvanā | 修行 (xiūxíng) | སྒོམ་པ། (sgom pa) |
cultivation of analysis | vitakka and vicāra | *vicāra-bhāvanā | 尋伺察 (xún sì chá) | དཔྱད་སྒོམ། (dpyad sgom) |
cultivation of settling | — | *sthāpya-bhāvanā | — | འཇོག་སྒོམ། jokgom ('jog sgom) |
See also
- General Buddhist practices
- Mindfulness– awareness in the present moment
- Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta
- Anapanasati – focusing on the breath, reference to Ānāpānasati Sutta
- Theravada Buddhist meditation practices
- Samatha– calm-abiding, which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind
- Vipassanā – insight, which enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates)
- Satipatthana – Mindfulness of body, sensations, mind and mental phenomena
- Upekkha)
- Buddha
- Patikkulamanasikara
- Kammaṭṭhāna
- Mahasati Meditation
- Dhammakaya Meditation
- Zen Buddhist meditation practices
- Shikantaza – just sitting
- Kinhin
- Zazen
- Koan
- Hua Tou
- Fuke sect)
- Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhist meditation practices
- Deity yoga
- Ngondro– preliminary practices
- Tonglen – giving and receiving
- Phowa – transference of consciousness at the time of death
- Chöd – cutting through fear by confronting it
- Mahamudra – the Kagyu version of 'entering the all-pervading Dharmadatu', the 'nondual state', or the 'absorption state'
- Dzogchen – the natural state, the Nyingma version of Mahamudra
- Tantra techniques
- Proper floor-sitting postures and supports while meditating
- Floor sitting: cross-legged (full lotus, half lotus, Burmese) or seiza
- Cushions: zafu, zabuton
- Traditional Buddhist texts on meditation
- Anapanasati Sutta (in the Pali Nikayas) and parallels in the Āgamas(Ānāpānasmṛti Sūtra)
- Satipatthana Sutta (in the Pali Nikayas) and its parallel in the Āgamas (Smṛtyupasthāna Sūtra)
- Upajjhatthana Sutta (in the Pali Nikayas)
- Kāyagatāsati Sutta (in the Pali Nikayas)
- Theravada Buddhism
- Yogācāra school, remains influential in East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism used in Tibetan Buddhism
- Zhiyi's Great Concentration and Insight (Mohe Zhiguan) – used in the Chinese Tiantai school
- Seventeen tantras – Major Tibetan Dzogchen texts.
- The school.
- Dakpo Tashi Namgyal's "Mahamudra: The Moonlight – Quintessence of Mind and Meditation"
- Soto Zenschool.
- Traditional preliminary practices to Buddhist meditation
- Western mindfulness
- Mindfulness (psychology)– Western applications of Buddhist ideas
- Analog in Vedas
- Dhyana in Hinduism
- Ksirodakasayi Vishnu
- Paramatma
- Analog in Taoism
- Daoist meditation
- Internal alchemy
Notes
- ^ Rahula (in Pali, based on VRI, n.d.): ānāp ānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi. Thanissaro (2006) translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [bhāvana] of mindfulness of in-&-out breathing." (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note.)
- ^ a b See, for example, Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), entry for "jhāna1"; Thanissaro (1997); as well as, Kapleau (1989), p. 385, for the derivation of the word "zen" from Sanskrit "dhyāna." PTS Secretary Dr. Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of wandering ascetics contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:
[T]here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as 'altered states of consciousness'. In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts, such states come to be termed 'meditations' (
samādhi); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world." (Gethin, 1998, p. 10.) - awakening as its ultimate aim."."
* Bodhi (1999): "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation [...] At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye [...] shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, Nibbana
* Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 142: "Meditation – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'"
* Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4). - ^ Goldstein (2003) writes that, in regard to the Satipatthana Sutta, "there are more than fifty different practices outlined in this Sutta. The meditations that derive from these foundations of mindfulness are called vipassana [...] and in one form or another – and by whatever name – are found in all the major Buddhist traditions." (p. 92)
The forty concentrative meditation subjects refer to Visuddhimagga's oft-referenced enumeration. - ^ Regarding Tibetan visualizations, Kamalashila (2003), writes: "The Tara meditation [...] is one example out of thousands of subjects for visualization meditation, each one arising out of some meditator's visionary experience of enlightened qualities, seen in the form of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas." (p. 227)
- ^ Polak refers to Vetter, who noted that in the suttas right effort leads to a calm state of mind. When this calm and self-restraint had been reached, the Buddha is described as sitting down and attaining the first jhana, in an almost natural way.[15]
- ^ Kuan refers to Bronkhorst (1985), Dharma and Abhidharma, p.312-314.
- ^ Kuan refers to Sujato (2006), A history of mindfulness: how insight worsted tranquility in the Satipatthana Sutta, p.264-273
- ^ Keren Arbel refers to Majjhima Nikaya 26, Ariyapariyesana Sutta, The Noble Search
See also:
* Majjhima Nikaya 111, Anuppada Sutta
* AN 05.028, Samadhanga Sutta: The Factors of Concentration.
See Johansson (1981), Pali Buddhist texts Explained to Beginners for a word-by-word translation. - bojjhanga, an alternative description of the dhyanas, but the only bojjhanga-term not mentioned in the stock dhyana-description.[33]Compare Sutta Nipatha 5.14 Udayamāṇavapucchā (The Questions of Udaya): "Pure equanimity and mindfulness, preceded by investigation of principles—this, I declare, is liberation by enlightenment, the smashing of ignorance.” (Translation: Sujato)
- ^ Stta Nipatha 5:13 Udaya’s Questions (transl. Thanissaro): "With delight the world’s fettered. With directed thought it’s examined."
Chen 2017: "Samadhi with general examination and specific in-depth investigation means getting rid of the not virtuous dharmas, such as greedy desire and hatred, to stay in joy and pleasure caused by nonarising, and to enter the first meditation and fully dwell in it."
Arbel 2016, p. 73: "Thus, my suggestion is that we should interpret the existence of vitakka and vicara in the first jhana as wholesome 'residues' of a previous development of wholesome thoughts. They denote the 'echo' of these wholesome thoughts, which reverberates in one who enters the first jhana as wholesome attitudes toward what is experienced." - Pali canon, Vitakka-vicāra form one expression, which refers to directing one's thought or attention on an object (vitarka) and investigate it (vicāra).[36][39][40][41][42] According to Dan Lusthaus, vitarka-vicāra is analytic scrutiny, a form of prajna. It "involves focusing on [something] and then breaking it down into its functional components" to understand it, "distinguishing the multitude of conditioning factors implicated in a phenomenal event."[43] The Theravada commentarial tradition, as represented by Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga, interprets vitarka and vicāra as the initial and sustained application of attention to a meditational object, which culminates in the stilling of the mind when moving on to the second dhyana.[44][45] According to Fox and Bucknell it may also refer to "the normal process of discursive thought," which is quieted through absorption in the second jhāna.[45][44]
- ^ The standard translation for samadhi is "concentration"; yet, this translation/interpretation is based on commentarial interpretations, as explained by a number of contemporary authors.[5] Tilmann Vetter notes that samadhi has a broad range of meanings, and "concentration" is just one of them. Vetter argues that the second, third and fourth dhyana are samma-samadhi, "right samadhi," building on a "spontaneous awareness" (sati) and equanimity which is perfected in the fourth dhyana.[48]
- ^ The common translation, based on the commentarial interpretation of dhyana as expanding states of absorption, translates sampasadana as "internal assurance." Yet, as Bucknell explains, it also means "tranquilizing," which is more apt in this context.[44] See also Passaddhi.
- ^ Upekkhā is one of the Brahmaviharas.
- AN5.28, the Buddha states (Thanissaro, 1997.):
"When a monk has developed and pursued the five-factored noble right concentration in this way, then whichever of the six higher knowledges he turns his mind to know and realize, he can witness them for himself whenever there is an opening...."
"If he wants, he wields manifold supranormal powers. Having been one he becomes many; having been many he becomes one. He appears. He vanishes. He goes unimpeded through walls, ramparts, and mountains as if through space. He dives in and out of the earth as if it were water. He walks on water without sinking as if it were dry land. Sitting crosslegged he flies through the air like a winged bird. With his hand he touches and strokes even the sun and moon, so mighty and powerful. He exercises influence with his body even as far as the Brahma worlds. He can witness this for himself whenever there is an opening ..." - ^ Gombrich: "I know this is controversial, but it seems to me that the third and fourth jhanas are thus quite unlike the second."[56]
- ^ Wynne: "Thus the expression sato sampajāno in the third jhāna must denote a state of awareness different from the meditative absorption of the second jhāna (cetaso ekodibhāva). It suggests that the subject is doing something different from remaining in a meditative state, i.e., that he has come out of his absorption and is now once again aware of objects. The same is true of the word upek(k)hā: it does not denote an abstract 'equanimity', [but] it means to be aware of something and indifferent to it [...] The third and fourth jhāna-s, as it seems to me, describe the process of directing states of meditative absorption towards the mindful awareness of objects.[59]
- ^ According to Gombrich, "the later tradition has falsified the jhana by classifying them as the quintessence of the concentrated, calming kind of meditation, ignoring the other - and indeed higher - element.[56]
- AN 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on Bodhi (2005), pp. 269-70, 440 n. 13. See also Thanissaro (1998d).
- SN 43.2), where the Buddha states: "And what, bhikkhus, is the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and insight...." (Bodhi, 2000, pp. 1372-73).
- AN IV, 125-27, Ajahn Brahm (who, like Bhikkhu Thanissaro, is of the Thai Forest Tradition) writes: "Some traditions speak of two types of meditation, insight meditation (vipassana) and calm meditation (samatha). In fact, the two are indivisible facets of the same process. Calm is the peaceful happiness born of meditation; insight is the clear understanding born of the same meditation. Calm leads to insight and insight leads to calm." (Brahm, 2006, p. 25.)
- ^ To be distinguished from the Mahayana Yogacara school, though they may have been a precursor.[1]
- ^ Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, pages 33-34. Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford University Press, 1986. The author is referring to Pali literature. See however B. Alan Wallace, The bridge of quiescence: experiencing Tibetan Buddhist meditation. Carus Publishing Company, 1998, where the author demonstrates similar approaches to analyzing meditation within the Indo-Tibetan and Theravada traditions.
References
- ^ a b c Deleanu, Florin (1992); Mindfulness of Breathing in the Dhyāna Sūtras. Transactions of the International Conference of Orientalists in Japan (TICOJ) 37, 42-57.
- ^ a b c d Vetter 1988.
- ^ a b c d e f Bronkhorst (1993).
- ^ a b Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 109
- ^ a b c d e f g Arbel 2016.
- ^ Sujato, A history of mindfulness.
- ^ a b c Bronkhorst (2012).
- ^ a b Bronkhorst (2012), p. 2.
- ^ Bronkhorst (2012), p. 4.
- ^ Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, 2017, p. 165.
- ^ Wynne, Alexander, The origin of Buddhist meditation, pp. 23, 37
- ^ Bronkhorst (1993), p. 10.
- ^ Analayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, p.69-70, 80
- ^ a b c Vetter 1988, p. xxv.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Polak 2011.
- ^ For instance, see Solé-Leris (1986), p. 75; and, Goldstein (2003), p. 92.
- ^ ISBN 9781921842108
- ^ Kuan 2008, p. 107.
- ^ Kuan 2008, p. 108.
- ^ Anālayo 2013, p. 48-49.
- ^ Polak 2011, pp. 153–156, 196–197.
- ^ from Teaching Dhamma by pictures: Explanation of a Siamese Traditional Buddhist Manuscript
- ^ Rhys-Davids & Stede (1921–25), p. 45, "Anussati".
- ^ Nanamoli (1998), p. 110, n. 16, which references the Anapanasati Sutta and the Visuddhimagga, Ch. VI, VIII.
- ^ Anālayo (2003), p. 125.
- ^ a b c Vetter 1988, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Wynne, Alexander, The origin of Buddhist meditation, pp. 94-95
- ^ Wynne, Alexander, The origin of Buddhist meditation, pp. 95
- ^ Fuller-Sasaki (2008).
- ^ Johansson 1981, p. 83.
- ^ a b Arbel 2016, p. 50-51.
- ^ Maezumi & Cook (2007), p. 63.
- ^ Arbel 2016, p. 106.
- ^ Wayman 1997, p. 48.
- ^ Sangpo & Dhammajoti 2012, p. 2413.
- ^ a b Lusthaus 2002, p. 89.
- ^ Chen 2017, p. "samadhi: A calm, stable and concentrative state of mind".
- ^ Arbel 2016, p. 73.
- ^ Rhys-Davids & Stede 1921–25.
- ^ Guenther & Kawamura 1975, p. Kindle Locations 1030-1033.
- ^ Kunsang 2004, p. 30.
- ^ Berzin 2006.
- ^ Lusthaus 2002, p. 116.
- ^ a b c d e Bucknell 1993, p. 375-376.
- ^ a b Stuart-Fox 1989, p. 82.
- ^ Arbel 2016, p. 94.
- ^ Lusthaus 2002, p. 113.
- ^ Vetter 1988, p. XXVI, note 9.
- ^ a b Arbel 2016, p. 86.
- ^ Arbel 2016, p. 115.
- ^ a b Lusthaus 2002, p. 90.
- ^ a b Arbel 2016, p. 124.
- ^ a b Arbel 2016, p. 125.
- ^ Johansson 1981, p. 98.
- ^ Sarbacker 2021, p. entry: "abhijñā".
- ^ a b c Wynne (2007), p. 140, note 58.
- ^ Original publication: Gombrich, Richard (2007), Religious Experience in Early Buddhism, OCHS Library
- ^ a b c Wynne (2007), p. 106.
- ^ Wynne (2007), pp. 106–107.
- ^ Gombrich (1997), pp. 84–85.
- ^ Gombrich (1997), p. 62.
- ^ a b c d Wynne (2007).
- ^ a b Schmithausen (1981).
- ^ Vetter 1988, pp. xxxiv–xxxvii.
- ^ Gombrich (1997), p. 131.
- ^ Vetter 1988, p. [page needed].
- ^ Gombrich (1997), pp. 96–134.
- ^ Vetter 1988, p. xxxv.
- ^ Keown, Damien (1992/2001) "The Nature of Buddhist Ethics," p. 79-82, New York: Palgrave.
- ^ Cox, Collett (1992/1994) “Attainment through Abandonment: The Sarvāstivāda Path of Removing Defilements”, in Paths to Liberation, The Mārga and Its Transformations in Buddhist Thought, R.E. Buswell jr. and R.M. Gimello (ed.), 63–105, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
- ^ Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 185.
- ^ ]
- ^ ISBN 978-1-139-85126-8.
- ^ Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 186.
- ^ Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 194.
- ^ Sayādaw, Mahāsi. Buddhist Meditation and its Forty Subjects. Retrieved 26 September 2019.
- ^ See, for instance, Bodhi (1999) and Nyanaponika (1996), p. 108.
- ^ Bodhi (2005), pp. 268, 439 nn. 7, 9, 10. See also Thanissaro (1998f).
- ^ See, for instance, AN 2.30 in Bodhi (2005), pp. 267-68, and Thanissaro (1998e).
- ^ PV Bapat. Vimuttimagga & Visuddhimagga – A Comparative Study, p. lv
- ^ PV Bapat. Vimuttimagga & Visuddhimagga – A Comparative Study, p. lvii
- ^ Kalupahana, David J. (1994), A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
- ISBN 9781921842108
- ^ Shaw (2006), p. 5.
- ^ a b c Bhikkhu Thanissaro, Concentration and Discernment
- ^ Sarah Shaw, Buddhist meditation: an anthology of texts from the Pāli canon. Routledge, 2006, pages 6-8. A Jataka tale gives a list of 38 of them. [1].
- ^ Buddhaghosa & Nanamoli (1999), pp. 85, 90.
- ^ Buddhaghoṣa & Nanamoli (1999), p. 110.
- ^ Regarding the jhanic attainments that are possible with different meditation techniques, see Gunaratana (1988).
- ^ Gethin, Buddhist practice
- ^ Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 112, 115
- ^ Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 117
- ^ Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle, The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices, 1994, p 238
- ^ “Should We Come Out of jhāna to Practice vipassanā?”, in Buddhist Studies in Honour of Venerable Kirindigalle Dhammaratana, S. Ratnayaka (ed.), 41–74, Colombo: Felicitation Committee. 2007
- ^ Shankman, Richard 2008: The Experience of samādhi, An Indepth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation, Boston: Shambala
- ^ Anālayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts USA 2017, p 123
- ISBN 9781118323298
- ^ Tiyavanich K. Forest Recollections: Wandering Monks in Twentieth-Century Thailand. University of Hawaii Press, 1997.
- ^ a b c Newell, Catherine. Two Meditation Traditions from Contemporary Thailand: A Summary Overview, Rian Thai : International Journal of Thai Studies Vol. 4/2011
- ^ Suen, Stephen, Methods of spiritual praxis in the Sarvāstivāda: A Study Primarily Based on the Abhidharma-mahāvibhāṣā, The University of Hong Kong 2009, p. 67.
- ^ a b Bhikkhu KL Dhammajoti, Sarvāstivāda-Abhidharma, Centre of Buddhist Studies The University of Hong Kong 2007, p. 575-576.
- ^ Suen, Stephen, Methods of spiritual praxis in the Sarvāstivāda: A Study Primarily Based on the Abhidharma-mahāvibhāṣā, The University of Hong Kong 2009, p. 177.
- ^ Suen, Stephen, Methods of spiritual praxis in the Sarvāstivāda: A Study Primarily Based on the Abhidharma-mahāvibhāṣā, The University of Hong Kong 2009, p. 191.
- ^ Bhikkhu KL Dhammajoti, Sarvāstivāda-Abhidharma, Centre of Buddhist Studies The University of Hong Kong 2007, p. 576
- ^ a b Bhikkhu KL Dhammajoti, Sarvāstivāda-Abhidharma, Centre of Buddhist Studies The University of Hong Kong 2007, p. 577.
- .
- ^ Delenau, Florin, Buddhist Meditation in the Bodhisattvabhumi, 2013
- ^ Ulrich Timme Kragh (editor), The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners: The Buddhist Yogācārabhūmi Treatise and Its Adaptation in India, East Asia, and Tibet, Volume 1 Harvard University, Department of South Asian studies, 2013, pp. 51, 60 - 230.
- ISBN 9781921842108
- ISBN 9781921842108
- ^ Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong, 2012, pp. 181-182, 188.
- Vol 4, No. 1, 2017, 187-238.
- ^ a b Akira Hirakawa, A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, p. 301.
- ^ Delenau, Florin. Mind Only and Beyond: History of Yogacara Meditation, 2010, p. 62. Lectures Series (Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies).
- ^ a b "Maha Prajnaparamita Sastra by Gelongma Karma Migme Chödrön". Wisdom Library. 2001.
- ^ a b c Delenau, Florin. Mind Only and Beyond: History of Yogacara Meditation, 2010, p. 63. Lectures Series (Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies).
- ^ Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. 1997. p. 104
- .
- ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, p. 40.
- ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 40-41.
- ^ Akira Hirakawa, A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, p. 300.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-231-52887-0.
- ISBN 978-0-906026-51-9.
- ^ Keenan, John (2000), Scripture on the Explication of the Underlying Meaning, p. 56. Berkeley: Numata Center, ISBN 1886439109
- ^ a b Delenau, Florin. Mind Only and Beyond: History of Yogacara Meditation, 2010, p. 30. Lectures Series (Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies).
- ^ a b Takeuchi Yoshinori (editor), Buddhist Spirituality: Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, and Early Chinese, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, pp. 61-62.
- ^ Adam, Martin T. Meditation and the Concept of Insight in Kamalashila's Bhavanakramas, 2002.
- ^ Bhante Dhammadipa, KUMĀRAJĪVA’S MEDITATIVE LEGACY IN CHINA, 2015.
- ^ Deleanu, Florin (1992); Mindfulness of Breathing in the Dhyāna Sūtras. Transactions of the International Conference of Orientalists in Japan (TICOJ) 37, 42-57.
- ^ Thich Hang Dat, A REAPPRAISAL OF KUMĀRAJĪVA’S ROLE IN MEDIEVAL CHINESE BUDDHISM: AN EXAMINATION OF KUMĀRAJĪVA’S TRANSLATION TEXT ON “THE ESSENTIAL EXPLANATION OF THE METHOD OF DHYANA”
- ^ Gregory, Peter N. (editor), Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, 1986, pp. 23-28.
- ^ Gregory, Peter N. (editor), Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, 1986, p. 30.
- ^ Gregory, Peter N. (editor), Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, 1986, pp. 32-34.
- ^ a b Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 110
- ISBN 978-0-8248-1561-5.
- ^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 111
- ^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 125
- ISBN 978-0-231-52887-0.
- ^ a b Fox, Alan. The Practice of Huayan Buddhism, http://www.fgu.edu.tw/~cbs/pdf/2013%E8%AB%96%E6%96%87%E9%9B%86/q16.pdf Archived 2017-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, page 145.
- ^ a b Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 83
- ^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 84
- ^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 85
- ^ Katsuki Sekida, Zen Training: Methods and Philosophy, Shambhala Publications, 2005, p. 60.
- ^ Taigen Dan Leighton. Cultivating the Empty Field: The Silent Illumination of Zen Master Hongzhi, Tuttle, 2000, p. 17
- ^ Taigen Dan Leighton. Cultivating the Empty Field: The Silent Illumination of Zen Master Hongzhi, Tuttle, 2000, pp. 1-2
- ^ Blyth (1966).
- ISBN 0824814274.
- ^ Bodiford, William M. (2006). Koan practice. In: "Sitting with Koans". Ed. John Daido Loori. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, p. 94.
- ^ Loori (2006).
- ^ Power, John; Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism, page 271
- ^ Garson, Nathaniel DeWitt; Penetrating the Secret Essence Tantra: Context and Philosophy in the Mahayoga System of rNying-ma Tantra, 2004, p. 37
- ^ Orzech, Charles D. (general editor) (2011). Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia. Brill, p. 85.
- ^ See, for instance, Zongmi's description of bonpu and gedō zen, described further below.
- ^ "MARC UCLA" (PDF).
- PMID 18837623. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2016-11-18. Retrieved 2017-01-28.
- ^ "Iddhipada-vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of the Bases of Power". Access to Insight.
- ^ "Samaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life". Access to Insight.
- ^ "Kevatta (Kevaddha) Sutta: To Kevatta". Access to Insight.
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- Loori, John Daido (2006), Sitting with Koans: Essential Writings on Zen Koan Introspection, Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, ISBN 0-86171-369-9
- Lusthaus, Dan (2002), Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch'eng Wei-shih Lun, Routledge
- Maezumi, Taizan; Cook, Francis Dojun (2007), "The Eight Awarenesses of the Enlightened Person": Dogen Zenji's Hachidainingaku", in Maezumi, Taizan; Glassman, Bernie (eds.), The Hazy Moon of Enlightenment, Wisdom Publications
- Polak, Grzegorz (2011), Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology, UMCS
- Rhys-Davids, T.W.; Stede, William, eds. (1921–25), The Pali Text Society's Pali–English dictionary, Pali Text Society)[permanent dead link]
- Sangpo, Gelong Lodro; Dhammajoti, Bhikkhu K.L. (2012), Abhidharmakosa-Bhasya of Vasubandhu: Volume 3, Motilal Banarsidass
- Sarbacker, Stuart Ray (2021), Tracing the Path of Yoga: The History and Philosophy of Indian Mind-Body Discipline, State University of New York Press
- Schmithausen, Lambert (1981), On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism". In: Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus (Gedenkschrift für Ludwig Alsdorf), hrsg. von Klaus Bruhn und Albrecht Wezler, Wiesbaden 1981, 199–250
- Shankman, Richard (2008), The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation, Shambhala
- Shaw, Sarah (2006), Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pali Canon, Routledge
- Stuart-Fox, Martin (1989), "Jhana and Buddhist Scholasticism", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 12 (2)
- ISBN 9781921842092
- Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL
- Wayman, Alex (1997), "Introduction", Calming the Mind and Discerning the Real: Buddhist Meditation and the Middle View, from the Lam Rim Chen Mo Tson-kha-pa, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
- Wynne, Alexander (2007), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, Routledge
Further reading
- Scholarly (general overview)
- ISBN 0-19-289223-1
- Scholarly (origins)
- Stuart-Fox, Martin (1989), "Jhana and Buddhist Scholasticism", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 12 (2)
- Bucknell, Robert S. (1993), "Reinterpreting the Jhanas", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 16 (2)
- Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
- Traditional Theravada
- ISBN 955-24-0035-X.
- Burmese Vipassana Movement
- ISBN 0-87728-073-8.
- Hart, William (1987), The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation: As Taught by ISBN 0-06-063724-2
- Thai Forest Tradition
- Brahm, Ajahn (2006), Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-275-7
- Ajahn Amaro (2017), The Breakthrough, based upon talks and meditation instructions during retreat at Amaravati
- awakening
- Other Thai traditions
- Buddhadasa, Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree
- Re-assessing jhana
- Quli, Natalie (2008), "Multiple Buddhist Modernisms: Jhana in Convert Theravada" (PDF), Pacific World 10:225–249
- Shankman, Richard (2008), The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation, Shambhala
- Arbel, Keren (2017), Early Buddhist Meditation: The Four Jhanas as the Actualization of Insight, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 9781317383994
- Zen
- Hakuin, Hakuin on Kensho. The Four Ways of Knowing. Shambhala
- Shunryu Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind
- ISBN 0-385-26093-8
- Tibetan Buddhism
- Mipham, Sakyong (2003). Turning the Mind into an Ally. NY: Riverhead Books. ISBN 1-57322-206-2.
- Buddhist modernism
- Jack Kornfield, A Path With Heart
- ISBN 0-06-251701-5
- Mindfulness
- ISBN 0-385-30312-2