Fugue
In
In the Middle Ages, the term was widely used to denote any works in canonic style; by the Renaissance, it had come to denote specifically imitative works.[2] Since the 17th century,[3] the term fugue has described what is commonly regarded as the most fully developed procedure of imitative counterpoint.[4]
Most fugues open with a short main theme, the subject,[5] which then sounds successively in each voice (after the first voice is finished stating the subject, a second voice repeats the subject at a different pitch, and other voices repeat in the same way); when each voice has completed the subject, the exposition is complete. This is often followed by a connecting passage, or episode, developed from previously heard material; further "entries" of the subject then are heard in related keys. Episodes (if applicable) and entries are usually alternated until the "final entry" of the subject, by which point the music has returned to the opening key, or tonic, which is often followed by closing material, the coda.[6][7][8] In this sense, a fugue is a style of composition, rather than a fixed structure.
The form evolved during the 18th century from several earlier types of contrapuntal compositions, such as imitative
Etymology
The English term fugue originated in the 16th century and is derived from the French word fugue or the Italian fuga. This in turn comes from Latin, also fuga, which is itself related to both fugere ("to flee") and fugare ("to chase").[12] The adjectival form is fugal.[13] Variants include fughetta ("a small fugue") and fugato (a passage in fugal style within another work that is not a fugue).[6]
Musical outline
A fugue begins with the exposition and is written according to certain predefined rules; in later portions the composer has more freedom, though a logical key structure is usually followed. Further entries of the subject will occur throughout the fugue, repeating the accompanying material at the same time.[14] The various entries may or may not be separated by episodes.
What follows is a chart displaying a fairly typical fugal outline, and an explanation of the processes involved in creating this structure.
Exposition | First mid-entry | Second mid-entry |
Final entries in tonic | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tonic | Dom. | T | (D-redundant entry) | Relative maj/min | Dom. of rel. | Subdom. | T | T | ||||||
Soprano | S | CS1 | C o d e t t a |
CS2 | A | E p i s o d e |
CS1 | CS2 | E p i s o d e |
S | E p i s o d e |
CS1 | Free counterpoint |
C o d a |
Alto | A | CS1 | CS2 | S | CS1 | CS2 | S | CS1 | ||||||
Bass | S | CS1 | CS2 | A | CS1 | CS2 | S |
Exposition
A fugue begins with the exposition of its subject in one of the voices alone in the
A tonal answer is usually called for when the subject begins with a prominent dominant note, or where there is a prominent dominant note very close to the beginning of the subject.[15] To prevent an undermining of the music's sense of key, this note is transposed up a fourth to the tonic rather than up a fifth to the supertonic. Answers in the subdominant are also employed for the same reason.[18]
While the answer is being stated, the voice in which the subject was previously heard continues with new material. If this new material is reused in later statements of the subject, it is called a
The countersubject is written in
In tonal music, invertible contrapuntal lines must be written according to certain rules because several intervallic combinations, while acceptable in one particular orientation, are no longer permissible when inverted. For example, when the note "G" sounds in one voice above the note "C" in lower voice, the interval of a fifth is formed, which is considered consonant and entirely acceptable. When this interval is inverted ("C" in the upper voice above "G" in the lower), it forms a fourth, considered a dissonance in tonal contrapuntal practice, and requires special treatment, or preparation and resolution, if it is to be used.[21] The countersubject, if sounding at the same time as the answer, is transposed to the pitch of the answer.[22] Each voice then responds with its own subject or answer, and further countersubjects or free counterpoint may be heard.
When a tonal answer is used, it is customary for the exposition to alternate subjects (S) with answers (A), however, in some fugues this order is occasionally varied: e.g., see the SAAS arrangement of Fugue No. 1 in C Major, BWV 846, from
The first answer must occur as soon after the initial statement of the subject as possible; therefore the first codetta is often extremely short, or not needed. In the above example, this is the case: the subject finishes on the quarter note (or crotchet) B♭ of the third beat of the second bar which harmonizes the opening G of the answer. The later codettas may be considerably longer, and often serve to (a) develop the material heard so far in the subject/answer and countersubject and possibly introduce ideas heard in the second countersubject or free counterpoint that follows (b) delay, and therefore heighten the impact of the reentry of the subject in another voice as well as modulating back to the tonic.[24]
The exposition usually concludes when all voices have given a statement of the subject or answer. In some fugues, the exposition will end with a redundant entry, or an extra presentation of the theme.[15] Furthermore, in some fugues the entry of one of the voices may be reserved until later, for example in the pedals of an organ fugue (see J.S. Bach's Fugue in C major for Organ, BWV 547).
Episode
Further entries of the subject follow this initial exposition, either immediately (as for example in Fugue No. 1 in C major, BWV 846 of the
Development
Further entries of the subject, or middle entries, occur throughout the fugue. They must state the subject or answer at least once in its entirety, and may also be heard in combination with the countersubject(s) from the exposition, new countersubjects, free counterpoint, or any of these in combination. It is uncommon for the subject to enter alone in a single voice in the middle entries as in the exposition; rather, it is usually heard with at least one of the countersubjects and/or other free contrapuntal accompaniments.
Middle entries tend to occur at pitches other than the initial. As shown in the typical structure above, these are often
When there is no entrance of the subject and answer material, the composer can develop the subject by altering the subject. This is called an episode,
Example and analysis
The excerpt below, bars 7–12 of
False entries
At any point in the fugue there may be "false entries" of the subject, which include the start of the subject but are not completed. False entries are often abbreviated to the head of the subject, and anticipate the "true" entry of the subject, heightening the impact of the subject proper.[18]
Counter-exposition
The counter-exposition is a second exposition. However, there are only two entries, and the entries occur in reverse order.[30] The counter-exposition in a fugue is separated from the exposition by an episode and is in the same key as the original exposition.[30]
Stretto
Sometimes counter-expositions or the middle entries take place in stretto, whereby one voice responds with the subject/answer before the first voice has completed its entry of the subject/answer, usually increasing the intensity of the music.[31]
Only one entry of the subject must be heard in its completion in a stretto. However, a stretto in which the subject/answer is heard in completion in all voices is known as stretto maestrale or grand stretto.[32] Strettos may also occur by inversion, augmentation and diminution. A fugue in which the opening exposition takes place in stretto form is known as a close fugue or stretto fugue (see for example, the Gratias agimus tibi and Dona nobis pacem choruses from J.S. Bach's Mass in B minor).[31]
Final entries and coda
The closing section of a fugue often includes one or two counter-expositions, and possibly a stretto, in the
Types
Simple fugue
A simple fugue has only one subject, and does not utilize
Double (triple, quadruple) fugue
A double fugue has two subjects that are often developed simultaneously. Similarly, a triple fugue has three subjects.
Counter-fugue
A counter-fugue is a fugue in which the first answer is presented as the subject in
Permutation fugue
Permutation fugue describes a type of composition (or technique of composition) in which elements of fugue and strict
There is usually very little non-structural/thematic material. During the course of a permutation fugue, it is quite uncommon, actually, for every single possible voice-combination (or "permutation") of the themes to be heard. This limitation exists in consequence of sheer proportionality: the more voices in a fugue, the greater the number of possible permutations. In consequence, composers exercise editorial judgment as to the most musical of permutations and processes leading thereto. One example of permutation fugue can be seen in the eighth and final chorus of J.S. Bach's cantata, Himmelskönig, sei willkommen, BWV 182.
Permutation fugues differ from conventional fugue in that there are no connecting episodes, nor statement of the themes in related keys.[39] So for example, the fugue of Bach's Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor, BWV 582 is not purely a permutation fugue, as it does have episodes between permutation expositions. Invertible counterpoint is essential to permutation fugues but is not found in simple fugues.[40]
Fughetta
A fughetta is a short fugue that has the same characteristics as a fugue. Often the contrapuntal writing is not strict, and the setting less formal. See for example, variation 24 of Beethoven's Diabelli Variations Op. 120.
History
Middle Ages and Renaissance
The term fuga was used as far back as the
"Fugue" as a theoretical term first occurred in 1330 when
Baroque era
It was in the Baroque period that the writing of fugues became central to composition, in part as a demonstration of compositional expertise. Fugues were incorporated into a variety of musical forms. Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck, Girolamo Frescobaldi, Johann Jakob Froberger and Dieterich Buxtehude all wrote fugues,[45] and George Frideric Handel included them in many of his oratorios. Keyboard suites from this time often conclude with a fugal gigue. Domenico Scarlatti has only a few fugues among his corpus of over 500 harpsichord sonatas. The French overture featured a quick fugal section after a slow introduction. The second movement of a sonata da chiesa, as written by Arcangelo Corelli and others, was usually fugal.
The Baroque period also saw a rise in the importance of
Bach's most famous fugues are those for the harpsichord in The Well-Tempered Clavier, which many composers and theorists look at as the greatest model of fugue.[50] The Well-Tempered Clavier comprises two volumes written in different times of Bach's life, each comprising 24 prelude and fugue pairs, one for each major and minor key. Bach is also known for his organ fugues, which are usually preceded by a prelude or toccata. The Art of Fugue, BWV 1080, is a collection of fugues (and four canons) on a single theme that is gradually transformed as the cycle progresses. Bach also wrote smaller single fugues and put fugal sections or movements into many of his more general works. J.S. Bach's influence extended forward through his son C.P.E. Bach and through the theorist Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg (1718–1795) whose Abhandlung von der Fuge ("Treatise on the fugue", 1753) was largely based on J.S. Bach's work.
Classical era
During the Classical era, the fugue was no longer a central or even fully natural mode of musical composition.[51] Nevertheless, both Haydn and Mozart had periods of their careers in which they in some sense "rediscovered" fugal writing and used it frequently in their work.
Haydn
Joseph Haydn was the leader of fugal composition and technique in the Classical era.
Haydn's second fugal period occurred after he heard, and was greatly inspired by, the oratorios of Handel during his visits to London (1791–1793, 1794–1795). Haydn then studied Handel's techniques and incorporated Handelian fugal writing into the choruses of his mature oratorios The Creation and The Seasons, as well as several of his later symphonies, including No. 88, No. 95, and No. 101; and the late string quartets, Opus 71 no. 3 and (especially) Opus 76 no. 6.
Mozart
The young Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart studied counterpoint with
The parts of the Requiem he completed also contain several fugues (most notably the Kyrie, and the three fugues in the Domine Jesu;[54] he also left behind a sketch for an Amen fugue which, some believe[who?], would have come at the end of the Sequentia).
Beethoven
Ludwig van Beethoven was familiar with fugal writing from childhood, as an important part of his training was playing from The Well-Tempered Clavier. During his early career in Vienna, Beethoven attracted notice for his performance of these fugues. There are fugal sections in Beethoven's early piano sonatas, and fugal writing is to be found in the second and fourth movements of the Eroica Symphony (1805). Beethoven incorporated fugues in his sonatas, and reshaped the episode's purpose and compositional technique for later generations of composers.[55]
Nevertheless, fugues did not take on a truly central role in Beethoven's work until his late period. The finale of Beethoven's Hammerklavier Sonata contains a fugue, which was practically unperformed until the late 19th century, due to its tremendous technical difficulty and length. The last movement of his Cello Sonata, Op. 102 No. 2 is a fugue, and there are fugal passages in the last movements of his Piano Sonatas in A major, Op. 101 and A♭ major Op. 110. According to Charles Rosen, "With the finale of 110, Beethoven re-conceived the significance of the most traditional elements of fugue writing."[56]
Fugal passages are also found in the Romantic era
By the beginning of the Romantic era, fugue writing had become specifically attached to the norms and styles of the Baroque. Felix Mendelssohn wrote many fugues inspired by his study of the music of Johann Sebastian Bach.
Johannes Brahms' Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel, Op. 24, is a work for solo piano written in 1861. It consists of a set of twenty-five variations and a concluding fugue, all based on a theme from George Frideric Handel's Harpsichord Suite No. 1 in B♭ major, HWV 434.
Franz Liszt's Piano Sonata in B minor (1853) contains a powerful fugue, demanding incisive virtuosity from its player:
Richard Wagner included several fugues in his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. Giuseppe Verdi included a whimsical example at the end of his opera Falstaff[60] and his setting of the Requiem Mass contained two (originally three) choral fugues.[61] Anton Bruckner and Gustav Mahler also included them in their respective symphonies. The exposition of the finale of Bruckner's Symphony No. 5 begins with a fugal exposition. The exposition ends with a chorale, the melody of which is then used as a second fugal exposition at the beginning of the development. The recapitulation features both fugal subjects concurrently.[citation needed] The finale of Mahler's Symphony No. 5 features a "fugue-like"[62] passage early in the movement, though this is not actually an example of a fugue.
20th century
Twentieth-century composers brought fugue back to its position of prominence, realizing its uses in full instrumental works, its importance in development and introductory sections, and the developmental capabilities of fugal composition.[51]
The second movement of Maurice Ravel's piano suite Le Tombeau de Couperin (1917) is a fugue that Roy Howat (200, p. 88) describes as having "a subtle glint of jazz".[63] Béla Bartók's Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936) opens with a slow fugue that Pierre Boulez (1986, pp. 346–47) regards as "certainly the finest and most characteristic example of Bartók's subtle style... probably the most timeless of all Bartók's works – a fugue that unfolds like a fan to a point of maximum intensity and then closes, returning to the mysterious atmosphere of the opening."[64] The second movement of Bartók's Sonata for Solo Violin is a fugue, and the first movement of his Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion contains a fugato.
Schwanda the Bagpiper (Czech: Švanda dudák), written in 1926, an opera in two acts (five scenes), with music by Jaromír Weinberger, includes a Polka followed by a powerful Fugue based on the Polka theme.
takes the logic of the fugal idea and creates something that's meticulously built on precise contrapuntal principles of imitation and fugality, but he expands them into a different region of musical experience. Ligeti doesn't want us to hear individual entries of the subject or any subject, or to allow us access to the labyrinth through listening in to individual lines… He creates instead a vastly dense texture of voices in his choir and orchestra, a huge stratified slab of terrifying visionary power. Yet this is music that's made with a fine craft and detail of a Swiss clock maker. Ligeti's so-called 'micro-polyphony': the many voicedness of small intervals at small distances in time from one another is a kind of conjuring trick. At the micro level of the individual lines, and there are dozens and dozens of them in this music...there's an astonishing detail and finesse, but the overall macro effect is a huge overwhelming and singular experience.[68]
Benjamin Britten used a fugue in the final part of The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra (1946). The Henry Purcell theme is triumphantly cited at the end, making it a choral fugue.[69]
Canadian pianist and musical thinker Glenn Gould composed So You Want to Write a Fugue?, a full-scale fugue set to a text that cleverly explicates its own musical form.[70]
Outside classical music
Fugues (or fughettas/fugatos) have been incorporated into genres outside Western classical music. Several examples exist within jazz, such as Bach goes to Town, composed by the Welsh composer Alec Templeton and recorded by Benny Goodman in 1938, and Concorde composed by John Lewis and recorded by the Modern Jazz Quartet in 1955.
In "Fugue for Tinhorns" from the Broadway musical Guys and Dolls, written by Frank Loesser, the characters Nicely-Nicely, Benny, and Rusty sing simultaneously about hot tips they each have in an upcoming horse race. [71]
In "West Side Story", the dance sequence following the song "Cool" is structured as a fugue. Interestingly, Leonard Bernstein quotes Beethoven's monumental "Große Fuge" for string quartet and employs Arnold Schoenberg's twelve tone technique, all in the context of a jazz infused Broadway show stopper.
A few examples also exist within progressive rock, such as the central movement of "The Endless Enigma" by Emerson, Lake & Palmer and "On Reflection" by Gentle Giant.
On their EP of the same name, Vulfpeck has a composition called "Fugue State", which incorporates a fugue-like section between Theo Katzman (guitar), Joe Dart (bass), and Woody Goss (Wurlitzer keyboard).
The composer
The film composer John Williams includes a fugue in his score for the 1990 film, Home Alone, at the point where Kevin, accidentally left at home by his family, and realizing he is about to be attacked by a pair of bumbling burglars, begins to plan his elaborate defenses. Another fugue occurs at a similar point in the 1992 sequel film, Home Alone 2: Lost in New York.
The jazz composer and film composer, Michel Legrand, includes a fugue as the climax of his score (a classical theme with variations, and fugue) for Joseph Losey's 1972 film The Go-Between, based on the 1953 novel by British novelist, L.P. Hartley, as well as several times in his score for Jacques Demy's 1970 film Peau d'âne.
Discussion
Musical form or texture
A widespread view of the fugue is that it is not a musical form but rather a technique of composition.[73]
The Austrian musicologist
Although certain
Perceptions and aesthetics
The fugue is the most complex of contrapuntal forms. In Ratz's words, "fugal technique significantly burdens the shaping of musical ideas, and it was given only to the greatest geniuses, such as Bach and Beethoven, to breathe life into such an unwieldy form and make it the bearer of the highest thoughts."[75] In presenting Bach's fugues as among the greatest of contrapuntal works, Peter Kivy points out that "counterpoint itself, since time out of mind, has been associated in the thinking of musicians with the profound and the serious"[76] and argues that "there seems to be some rational justification for their doing so."[77]
This is related to the idea that restrictions create freedom for the composer, by directing their efforts. He also points out that fugal writing has its roots in improvisation, and was, during the Renaissance, practiced as an improvisatory art. Writing in 1555, Nicola Vicentino, for example, suggests that:
the composer, having completed the initial imitative entrances, take the passage which has served as accompaniment to the theme and make it the basis for new imitative treatment, so that "he will always have material with which to compose without having to stop and reflect". This formulation of the basic rule for fugal improvisation anticipates later sixteenth-century discussions which deal with the improvisational technique at the keyboard more extensively.[78]
References
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- ^ "Fugue [Fr. fugue; Ger. Fuge; Lat., It., Sp., fuga]." The Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), "credo Reference". Retrieved 6 May 2008.[permanent dead link]
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- ^ a b Ratner 1980, p. 263
- ^ Gedalge 1964, p. 7
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-920383-3. Retrieved 16 March 2007.
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- ^ "Fugue, n." The Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition, revised, ed. Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2006). "Oxford Reference Online, subscription access". Retrieved 16 March 2007.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Fugal, adj." The Concise Oxford English Dictionary, eleventh edition, revised, ed. Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2006). "Oxford Reference Online, subscription access". Retrieved 16 March 2007.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Gedalge 1964, p. 70
- ^ a b c d e f g h i
G. M. Tucker and Andrew V. Jones, "Fugue", in The Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). ISBN 978-0-19-957903-7. Retrieved 16 March 2007.
- ^ Gedalge 1964, p. 12
- ^ Morris, R. O. (1958). Contrapuntal Technique in the Sixteenth Century. London: Oxford University Press. p. 47.
- ^ a b Verrall 1966, p. 12
- ^ Gedalge 1964, p. 59
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- ^ Gedalge 1964, p. 61
- ^ Gedalge 1964, pp. 71–72
- ^ Paul Walker, "Fugue, §1: A Classic Fugue Analysed" "Grove Music Online". Retrieved 18 February 2007.
- ^ a b Verrall 1966, p. 33
- ^ Gedalge 1964
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- ^ Bach, Johann Sebastian (1997). "Fuge Nr. 2". In Heinemann, Ernst-Günter (ed.). Das Wohltemperierte Klavier I. Munich: G. Henle Verlag.
- ^ Dreyfus, Laurence (1996). "Figments of the Organicist Imagination". Bach and the Patterns of Invention. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: Harvard University Press. p. 178.
- ^ a b Gedalge 1964, p. 108
- ^ ISBN 978-1-56159-239-5.
- ^ Verrall 1966, p. 77
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- ^ Walker 1992, p. 56
- ^ Walker 2000, p. 7
- ^ a b Walker 2000, pp. 9–10
- ^ Mann 1960, p. 9
- ^ Perkins, Leeman L. (1999). Music in the Age of the Renaissance. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 880–81.
- ^ Walker 2000, p. 165
- ^ Schulenberg, David (2001). Music of the Baroque. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 243.
- ^ Walker 2000, p. 316
- ^ Walker 2000, p. 317
- ^ Mann 1960, p. 53
- ^ Walker 2000, p. 2
- ^ a b Graves 1962, p. 64
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- ^ Letters of Mozart. New York: Dorset Press. 1986. p. 195.[full citation needed]
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- ^ Notes to Vingt Regards sur l'Enfant Jésus. Translator not indicated. Erato Disques S.A. 4509-91705-2, 1993. Compact Disc.
- ^ Eric Drott, "Lines, Masses, Micropolyphony: Ligeti's Kyrie and the 'Crisis of the Figure' ". Perspectives of New Music 49, no. 1 (Winter 2011): 4–46. Citation on 10.
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Sources
- OCLC 917101.
- Graves, William L. Jr. (1962). Twentieth Century Fugue. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press. OCLC 480340.
- ISBN 0-8014-2331-7.
- Mann, Alfred (1960). The Study of Fugue. London: Oxford University Press.
- Mann, Alfred (1965). The Study of Fugue. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
- OCLC 6648908.
- Ratz, Erwin (1951). Einführung in die Musikalische Formenlehre: Über Formprinzipien in den Inventionen J. S. Bachs und ihre Bedeutung für die Kompositionstechnik Beethovens [Introduction to Musical Form: On the Principles of Form in J. S. Bach's Inventions and their Import for Beethoven's Compositional Technique] (first edition with supplementary volume). Vienna: Österreichischer Bundesverlag für Unterricht, Wissenschaft und Kunst.
- Verrall, John W. (1966). Fugue and Invention in Theory and Practice. Palo Alto: Pacific Books. OCLC 1173554.
- Walker, Paul (1992). The Origin of Permutation Fugue. New York: Broude Brothers Limited.
- Walker, Paul Mark (2000). Theories of Fugue from the Age of Josquin to the Age of Bach. Eastman studies in music. Vol. 13. Rochester: University of Rochester Press. OCLC 56634238.
Further reading
- Horsley, Imogene (1966). Fugue: History and Practice. New York/London: Free Press/Collier-Macmillan.
- ISBN 9780520962590.
External links
- Score Archived 7 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine, J. S. Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier, Mutopia Project
- Fugues of the Well-Tempered Clavier (viewable in Adobe Flash Archived 25 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine or Shockwave)
- Theory on fugues
- Fugues and fugue sets
- Analyses of J. S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier with accompanying recordings
- The American Cyclopædia. 1879.
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- Visualization of Bach's "Little" Fugue in G minor, organ on YouTube
- Analyses of J. S. Bach's Fugue for Solo Violin in C major, BWV 1005 (tutorial video with score) on YouTube