History of the Jews in Laupheim
The history of the Jews in Laupheim began in the first half of the 18th century. Until the second half of the 19th century, the
Prelude
At the beginning of the 18th century, Laupheim was a small market town in
From the beginnings until the Jews' Act of 1828
In 1724, Abraham Kissendorfer from
Various taxes, financial obligations and restrictions were imposed on the Jews: a special
In the years after 1730, more Jewish families came to Laupheim from Fellheim, Fischach, Illeraichheim[12] and other places, where Jews had already been allowed to settle, so that, when, in 1754, the protection contract, which had expired some time before,[13] was renewed for another 30 years, the Jewish community in Laupheim had grown to 27 families. The contract was again renewed in 1784 and with each of these renewals a substantial fee of 800 fl had to be paid. The families arriving after 1750 had to have their houses built at their own expense. The area where those dwellings were built was allocated by the local rulers, who also kept the legal right to the properties. After 1784, these houses were held by the Jews as hereditary fiefs from the local rulers.[10]
A plot of uncultivated land to the north of the Jewish settlement in Laupheim was bought by the infant community shortly after their settlement to be used as a cemetery. Due to the rapid growth of the population the cemetery had to be expanded in 1784, 1856 and again 1877.[14]
Once the quorum of ten or more adult male Jews was reached, (Minyan), the first Jews in Laupheim used a room on the first floor in the house of butcher Michael Laupheimer, located on the Judengasse, for their religious services.[15] However, the continuous, rapid growth of the Jewish community made it necessary to have a synagogue built. It was built as an L-shaped building next to the cemetery close to the spot where later on the Jewish mortuary was to be built.[16]
Unlike the unfree Christian population of both parts of Laupheim, the Jewish inhabitants had a considerable larger autonomy in administrating their own communal affairs. Around 1760, a
In criminal cases and in disputes between Christians and Jews, the local ruler reserved the right to make a legal decision.The settlement of the Jews in Laupheim developed on the so-called Judenberg ("Jews’ mountain" or rather "Jews’ hill") with the Judengasse ("Jews’ Lane") at its centre, a ghetto-like area, separated from the rest of the town, yet in close proximity to the market square. The Judenberg forms a regular square where the 8 oldest houses, arranged in 3 rows, are positioned parallel to one of the main streets leading away from the town centre.[10] The local Jews were allowed to influence the planning and design of their houses from the end of the 18th century onwards. It is remarkable, even today, that all houses are approachable from the front as well as the back, and that even the front yards and front gardens are not fenced in. The reason for this lies in the fact that the Judengasse was meant to incorporate the whole Jewish settlement to form an eruv.[19]
After having received the houses as hereditary fiefs in 1784, Jews were allowed to buy their houses from 1812 onwards. In 1807, 41 families lived in 17 houses on the Judenberg. In 1820, the number had risen to 59 families living in 34 houses.[20]
This growth in population made it necessary in 1822, to have an even bigger synagogue built. The new building was erected at a cost of 16.000 fl. However, due to errors made during the construction, the building had to be completely broken down less than 15 years later, to be replaced by a new building in 1836/1837. This new synagogue had a length of approximately 24 metres and was approximately 13 metres wide.[21]
From 1828 to 1869
In 1806, both parts of Laupheim were annexed by the newly formed
In the years following this decree, Jews from Laupheim bought several bankrupt agricultural businesses in the surrounding villages as well as within the town of Laupheim itself, split them into smaller entities and sold them off again, thereby making considerable profit. One example of this is the acquisition of Großlaupheim Castle with all its property by the family Steiner in 1843. In 1840, Karl von Welden, the last feudal lord of Laupheim, sold the castle to the state of Württemberg. He was bitterly disappointed with his subjects obstinate behaviour towards him as their former feudal lord (they had taken him to court for 300 different offences) and sold the castles to the Kingdom of Württemberg.[25] Großlaupheim Castle with all accompanying lands was then acquired by the Jewish merchant Viktor Steiner[26] whose family managed to hold on to the possession for five generations, even through the Nazi-period, until 1961. After Viktor Steiner's death in 1865, his son, Daniel Steiner, and his son-in-law, Salomon Klein, became heirs to the business. They, in turn, sold it on to Laupheim-born banker and industrialist Kilian Steiner, who had resided in Stuttgart.[27]
The government's policy to encourage young Jews to learn one of the crafts they had been excluded from, only met with partial success. Even though more Jews became apprentices to craftsmen, they usually chose a profession which later enabled them to change it into a craft-related trade.[28]
A side effect of the act was that those Jews who had not used a surname as yet were forced to acquire
The Jews' Act of 1828 forced the rabbis to keep
The economic equality granted to the Jews in 1828 caused an increase in building works in Laupheim which, in turn, caused an increase in the economic fortunes of the small market town. This is demonstrated by the fact that the number of building-related craftsmen doubled within ten years between 1845 and 1856. The weekly market, which had been discontinued at the beginning of the century, was reintroduced in 1842. Although it had to compete with the larger markets in
In 1864, Jews living in the Kingdom of Württemberg, were finally granted complete
From 1869 to 1933
The Laupheim Jews contributed substantially to the effort to have Laupheim elevated to the status of city, by appealing repeatedly to the King of Württemberg to grant Laupheim this status from the early years of the 1860s onwards. Finally, in a charter of 1869, the King of Württemberg conferred on Laupheim city rights.
Ironically, the absolute number of Jewish inhabitants in Laupheim reached its zenith the very same year. In 1856, the number of Jewish inhabitants constituted more than a fifth of all inhabitants of Laupheim, even though the absolute number was less than in 1869. This is because the general population of Laupheim grew disproportionally. In 1869, 843 Jews were registered in Laupheim, accounting for approximately twelve percent of the total population. From this year onwards, the Jewish population dwindled. The reason for this lies in the fact that for many Jewish inhabitants, Laupheim did not offer enough opportunities to sustain a living. This process of migration had already started in the 1850s with many Laupheim Jews being attracted to the bigger cities, such as Ulm,
The upturn in Jewish fortunes was also shown in the fact that the community could afford to have the synagogue completely rebuilt and refurbished. As early as 1845 there had been complaints that the synagogue was too small to accommodate the growing numbers of believers. The works for the new synagogue finished in May 1877. By adding two towers with domed roofs and wide, rounded windows, the building was given a renaissance-like appearance.[36]
During this period, several businesses were founded or expanded. A company producing wooden tools, founded by Josef Steiner and his four sons, became one of the leading distributors of products of this kind in southern Germany. A company for refinement of hair products was founded by the brothers Bergmann. This company still exists today, having been
Around and in the vicinity of the market square, several
By the end of the 19th century Jews in Laupheim were completely integrated and assimilated into society, being part of all walks of life, a situation which would not change for more than 30 years. This assimilation is seen by the fact that many, more affluent Jews moved away from the confinement of the Judenberg. Consequently, many of the Gründerzeit buildings still existing in Laupheim were erected by Jews.[38]
The Jewish school
Traditionally, the education of the children of a Jewish family rested with the father. However, the absence of many fathers due to their frequently being away from home in their capacity as traders, made it necessary to employ travelling teachers who received food and accommodation in return for their services. These teachers, called
Jewish societies
The first Jewish society (Chewra Kadischah) was founded in 1748 with the task of looking after the ill and taking care of funerals. This society was active for almost 200 years. In 1780, the Talmud-Torah-Society was founded to assist the religious instruction of fellow Jews and to take care of young people. It was accompanied by a welfare society Nathan Basseser, founded in 1804, the Jewish Women Society and the Jewish Orphan Fund, supporting the Jewish orphanage in Esslingen, in 1838. Jewish societies sprang up not only for charitable but also for sociable purposes. A choral society, called Frohsinn (Cheerfulness), was founded in 1845 and went on to win many prizes at choir festivals. The reading society Konkordia (Concord) came into existence in 1846 on the initiative of the Laupheim-born rabbi-candidate Max Sänger.[42]
From 1933 to 1938
After the appointment of
The assassination of Ernst vom Rath, Third Secretary of the German Embassy in Paris, by Herschel Grynszpan served as a pretext for a nationwide pogrom against Jews throughout Germany and Austria on the night of 9–10 November 1938, colloquially known as Kristallnacht. In Laupheim, Jewish shops were vandalised and the synagogue was burnt to the ground. The fire-brigade was prevented by locals from extinguishing the fire. A number of Jewish inhabitants were arrested and transported to the town hall. From there, they were marched to the burning synagogue, escorted by members of the Nazi-party, where they had to listen to a diatribe by a SA-leader, after which they were forced to carry out physical exercises in front of the burning building during which several of them were physically assaulted and injured.[47] Afterwards, some of them were released, whereas the more prominent Jews were transported to the concentration camp Dachau. One, Sigmund Laupheimer, was beaten to death by SS guards during his confinement there.[48] By February 1939 16 of the imprisoned men had been released.[49] The main perpetrators, were never brought to justice as they were either killed during the war or missing in action. 16 locals, however, were tried in 1948. All of them claimed that they were acting under orders. Four of them were acquitted whereas the twelve others were sentenced to prison terms ranging between two months and one year for crimes against humanity and being accessory to arson.[50]
The end of Jewish life in Laupheim
A few days after the pogrom of 9–10 November 1938, a decree for the expropriation of Jewish businesses was implemented. Following this, all Jewish businesses had to be
As a result of the accelerated discrimination of Jews, emigration from Laupheim increased to 32 in 1939. In 1940, only 14 persons managed to escape the oppression and in 1941 a meagre 4 Jews from Laupheim managed to leave the country.
Development of the Jewish population in Laupheim
The table below shows the development of the Jewish population of Laupheim and also shows these numbers in relation to the total number of inhabitants of Laupheim.[54]
Year | Jewish population | Percentage |
---|---|---|
1730 | ca. 25 | 1.3% |
1754 | ca. 75 | 3.7% |
1784 | ca. 125 | 5.6% |
1808 | 278 | 8.6% |
1824 | 464 | 17.3% |
1831 | 548 | 18.2% |
1846 | 759 | 21.7% |
1856 | 796 | 22.6% |
1869 | 843 | 13.4% |
1886 | 570 | 8.3% |
1900 | 443 | 6.1% |
1910 | 348 | 4.3% |
1933 | 249 | 2.7% |
1943 | 0 | 0.0% |
Of the 249 Jews registered in Laupheim in 1933, 126 managed to save their lives by fleeing Germany and emigrating to various foreign destinations.[55]
Rabbis of the Laupheim Jewish community
A complete list of all the Laupheim rabbis does not exist. The first rabbi is mentioned in 1730 but there is a gap in the records until 1760.[56]
Year | Name | Details |
---|---|---|
1730 – ? | Jakob Bär (Beer) | from Fellheim near Memmingen |
1760–1804 | Maier Lämmle | (? - 1804 in Laupheim)[57][58] |
1804–1824 | David Levi | (? in Schnaitheim, now part of the city of Heidenheim – 1824 in Laupheim)[59] |
1824–1825 | Leopold Lehmann | substitute for one year before being called to Belfort |
1825–1835 | Salomon Wassermann | (1780 in Oberdorf – 1859 in Laupheim) previously rabbi in Ansbach, later rabbi in Bad Mergentheim until 1854[60] |
1835–1852 | Jakob Kaufmann | (1783 in |
1852–1876 | Dr Abraham Wälder | (1809 in Berlichingen[62]
|
1877–1892 | Dr Ludwig Kahn | (1845 in Baisingen – 1914 in Heidelberg) afterwards rabbi in Heilbronn until 1914[63] |
1892–1894 | Dr Berthold Einstein | (1862 in Ulm – 1935 in Landau) afterwards rabbi in Landau until 1934[64] |
1895–1922 | Dr Leopold Treitel[65] | (1845 in Breslau – 1931 in Laupheim) previously rabbi in Karlsruhe ; Jewish scholar
|
Following the retirement of Leopold Treitel, the Laupheim rabbinate ceased to exist on 1 April 1923.[66]
Prominent Jews from Laupheim
- Kilian von Steiner (9 October 1833 – 11 November 1903), banker.
- reform movement.
- Universal Studios.
- Friedrich Adler (29 April 1878–1942), Jugendstil and Art Deco designer; murdered in Auschwitz.
- Hertha Nathorff (5 June 1895 – 10 June 1993), pediatrician.
- high jumperof the 1930s.
- Siegfried Einstein (30 November 1919 – 25 April 1983 in Mannheim), author and poet.
See also
Notes
- ^ P. Sauer, Die jüdischen Gemeinden in Württemberg und Hohenzollern, p. 118
- ^ W. Eckert, "Zur Geschichte der Juden in Laupheim", p. 62
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 4
- ^ J. A. Aich, Laupheim 1570–1870, p. 7
- ^ G. Schenk (a), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 103
- ^ G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 286
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 7f
- ^ S. Kullen, "Spurensuche", p. 46
- ^ a b G. Schenk (a), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 104
- ^ a b c L. Georg, Historische Bauten, p. 57
- ^ S. Kullen, "Spurensuche", p. 47
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 11
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 18
- ^ S. Kullen, "Spurensuche", p. 52
- ^ G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 295
- ^ a b c S. Kullen, "Spurensuche", p. 51
- ^ G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 288
- ^ L. Georg, Historische Bauten, p. 59
- ^ G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim Laupheim", p. 289
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 30ff
- ^ G. Schenk (a), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 113
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 45
- ^ S. Kullen, "Spurensuche", p. 50
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 47f
- ^ G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 290
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 73
- ^ Benigna Schönhagen, Kilian und Steiner und Laupheim, p. 4, 11f
- ^ G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 290f
- ^ G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 291
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 51
- ^ a b W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 48
- ^ S. Kullen, Spurensuche, p. 47
- ^ H. Engisch, Das Königreich Württemberg, p. 82
- ^ G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 292f
- ^ "The Jews of Germany". Beit Hatfutsot Open Databases Project, The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot.
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 53ff
- ^ G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 298
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 49
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 57
- ^ L. Georg, Historische Bauten, p. 61
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 58
- ^ G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 298; W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 58ff
- ^ W. Eckert, "Zur Geschichte der Juden in Laupheim", p. 59. This was the department store D. M. Einstein, owned by the father of poet Siegfried Einstein.
- ^ G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 299
- ^ A. Köhlerschmidt & Karl Neidlinger, Die jüdische Gemeinde Laupheim und ihre Zerstörung, p. 298
- ^ S. Kullen, "Spurensuche", p. 49
- ^ W. Eckert, "Zur Geschichte der Juden in Laupheim", p. 60
- ^ Ray, Roland (9 November 2013), ""Herr Lehrer, Ihre Kirche brennt!"", Schwäbische Zeitung (in German), retrieved 26 January 2020
- ^ a b G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 300
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 79ff; G. Schenk (a), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 118
- ^ W. Eckert, "Zur Geschichte der Juden in Laupheim", p. 61
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 85
- ^ A. Köhlerschmidt & Karl Neidlinger, Die jüdische Gemeinde Laupheim und ihre Zerstörung, p. 357
- ^ Statistisches Landesamt Baden-Württemberg [1]; G. Schenk (b), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 215, 239, 292, 450; J. A. Aich, Laupheim 1570–1870, p. 31
- ^ Hecht, Cornelia. "Museum zur Geschichte von Christen und Juden – Laupheim" (PDF) (in German). Landeszentrale für politische Bildung. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
- ^ W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 51f.
- ^ Säbel, Heinz (1937-05-30). "Hundert Jahre Synagoge Laupheim". Hertha Nathorff Collection; AR 5207; box number 1; folder number 3; Leo Baeck Institute. Center for Jewish History. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
- ISBN 3-598-24871-7.
- ISBN 3-598-24871-7.
- ISBN 3-598-24871-7.
- ISBN 3-598-24871-7.
- ISBN 3-598-24871-7.
- ISBN 3-598-24871-7.
- ISBN 978-3-598-24874-0.
- ^ G. Schenk (a), "Die Juden in Laupheim", p. 113f; W. Kohl, Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim, p. 52; R. Emmerich, "Philo und die Synagoge", p. 13; A. Köhlerschmidt & K. Neildinger (Hrsg.), Die jüdische Gemeinde Laupheim und ihre Zerstörung, p. 524; H. Säbel, "Hundert Jahre Synagoge Laupheim", p. 3, in: Hertha Nathorff Collection, 1813–1967. Schenk dates Treitel's rabbinate from 1895 to 1925 whereas Kohl says that with the retirement of Treitel on 1 April 1923, the office of rabbi in Laupheim ceased to exist. This is confirmed by Emmerich who indicates that Treitel was rabbi for more than 28 years and retired in the year of the publication of his monograph on Philo of Alexandria in 1923. However, during a speech held in 1937 the last teacher of the Laupheim Jewish school, Heinz Säbel, dated the end of Treitel's rabbinate to 1922. Furthermore, in an obituary dated 20 March 1931 published in the C.V.-Zeitung, the weekly newspaper of the Central-Vereins deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen Glaubens, upon the death of Treitel the dates for his rabbinate are given as 1985 to 1922.
- ^ A. Hoffmann, Schnittmengen und Scheidelinien, p. 12
Further reading
- Adams, Myrah; Schönhagen, Benigna (1998). Jüdisches Laupheim. Ein Gang durch die Stadt. Haigerloch: Medien und Dialog. ISBN 3-933231-01-9.
- Aich, Johann Albert (1921). Laupheim 1570–1870. Beiträge zu Schwabens und Vorderösterreichs Geschichte und Heimatkunde (4th ed.). Laupheim: A. Klaiber.
- Eckert, Wolfgang (1988). "Zur Geschichte der Juden in Laupheim". Heimatkundliche Blätter für den Kreis Biberach. 11 (2): 57–62.
- Emmerich, Rolf (1998). "Philo und die Synagoge – Dr. Leopold Treitel, der letzte Rabbiner von Laupheim". Schwäbische Heimat (4): 13–19.
- Engisch, Helmut (2006). Das Königreich Württemberg. Stuttgart: Theiss. ISBN 978-3-8062-1554-0.
- Georg, Lutz (1967). "Historische Bauten der Stadt Laupheim: ihre bau- und kulturgeschichtliche Bedeutung im Wandel der Zeit". Diss. Pädagogische Hochschule Weingarten.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - Gesellschaft für Geschichte und Gedenken e. V. (1998). Christen und Juden in Laupheim. Laupheim: Gesellschaft für Geschichte und Gedenken e. V. ISBN 3-87437-151-4.
- Hecht, Cornelia, ed. (2004). Die Deportation der Juden aus Laupheim. Eine kommentierte Dokumentensammlung. Herrenberg: C. Hecht. ISBN 978-3-00-013113-4.
- Hoffmann, Andrea (2011). Schnittmengen und Scheidelinien: Juden und Christen in Oberschwaben. Tübingen: Tübinger Vereinigung für Volkskunde. ISBN 978-3-932512-69-8.
- Hüttenmeister, Nathanja (1998). Der jüdische Friedhof Laupheim. Eine Dokumentation. Laupheim: Verkehrs- und Verschönerungsverein Laupheim. ISBN 3-00-003527-3.
- Jansen, Katrin Nele; Brooke, Michael; Carlebach, Julius, eds. (1996). Biographisches Handbuch der Rabbiner 2. Die Rabbiner im Deutschen Reich 1871–1945 (in German). Vol. 2. München: De Gruyter Saur. ISBN 978-3-598-24874-0.
- Kohl, Waltraud (1965). "Die Geschichte der Judengemeinde in Laupheim". Diss. Pädagogische Hochschule Weingarten.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - Köhlerschmidt, Antje; Neidlinger, Karl (eds.) (2008). Die jüdische Gemeinde Laupheim und ihre Zerstörung. Biografische Abrisse ihrer Mitglieder nach dem Stand von 1933. Laupheim: Gesellschaft für Geschichte und Gedenken e. V. )
- Kullen, Siegfried (1994). "Spurensuche. Jüdische Gemeinden im nördlichen Oberschwaben". Blaubeurer geographische Hefte. 5: 1–79.
- Oswalt, Vadim (2000). Staat und ländliche Lebenswelt in Oberschwaben 1810–1871. (K)ein Kapitel im Zivilisationsprozeß?. Leinfelden-Echterdingen: DRW-Verlag. ISBN 3-87181-429-6.
- Säbel, Heinz. "Hundert Jahre Synagoge Laupheim". Hertha Nathorff Collection, 1813–1967. Center for Jewish History. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
- Schäll, Ernst (1981). "Friedrich Adler (1878–1942). Ein Künstler aus Laupheim". Schwäbische Heimat. 32: 46–61.
- Schäll, Ernst (1993). "Kilian von Steiner; Bankier und Industrieller, Mäzen und Humanist". Schwäbische Heimat. 44: 4–11.
- Schäll, Ernst (1994). "Laupheim – einst eine große und angesehene Judengemeinde". In Kustermann, Abraham P.; Bauer, Dieter R. (eds.). Jüdisches Leben im Bodenseeraum. Zur Geschichte des alemannischen Judentums mit Thesen zum christlich-jüdischen Gespräch. Ostfildern: Schwabenverlag. pp. 59–89. ISBN 3-7966-0752-7.
- Schäll, Ernst (1996). "Der jüdische Friedhof in Laupheim". Schwäbische Heimat. 47: 404–417.
- Schenk (a), Georg (1970). "Die Juden in Laupheim". Ulm und Oberschwaben. 39: 103–120.
- Schenk (b), Georg (1979). "Die Juden in Laupheim". In Diemer, Kurt (ed.). Laupheim. Stadtgeschichte. Weißenhorn: Konrad. pp. 286–303. ISBN 3-87437-151-4.
- Schönhagen, Benigna (1998). Kilian von Steiner und Laupheim: "Ja, es ist ein weiter Weg von der Judenschule bis hierher ...". Marbach am Neckar: Deutsche Schillergesellschaft. ISBN 3-929146-81-9.
- Sauer, Paul (1966). Die jüdischen Gemeinden in Württemberg und Hohenzollern. Denkmale, Geschichte, Schicksale. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
- Wilke, Carsten, ed. (1996). Biographisches Handbuch der Rabbiner 1. Die Rabbiner der Emanzipationszeit in den deutschen, böhmischen und großpolnischen Ländern 1781–1871 (in German). München: De Gruyter Saur. ISBN 3-598-24871-7.
External links
- Webpage of the Museum Of Christians and Jews (in German)
- Alemannia Judaica – Jewish history in Baden-Württemberg
- Beit Hatfutsot, Museum of the Jewish People https://www.bh.org.il