Hmongic languages
Hmongic | |
---|---|
Miao | |
Ethnicity | Miao people |
Geographic distribution | China, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand |
Linguistic classification | Hmong–Mien
|
Proto-language | Proto-Hmongic |
Subdivisions | |
ISO 639-2 / 5 | hmn |
Glottolog | hmon1337 |
Hmongic languages:
West Hmongic
Hmu / East Hmongic
Xong / North Hmongic
Divergent groups: Pa Hng, Bunu, Aoka, etc. |
The Hmongic languages, also known as Miao languages (
.Names
Miao (苗) is the Chinese name and the one used by Miao in China. However, Hmong is more familiar in the West, due to Hmong emigration. Hmong is the biggest subgroup within the Hmongic peoples. Many overseas Hmong prefer the name Hmong, and claim that Meo (a Southeast Asian language change from Miao) is both inaccurate and pejorative, though it is generally considered neutral by the Miao community in China.
Of the core Hmongic languages spoken by ethnic Miao, there are a number of overlapping names. The three branches are as follows,[1] as named by Purnell (in English and Chinese), Ratliff, and scholars in China, as well as the descriptive names based on the patterns and colors of traditional dress:
Glottolog | Native name | Endonym | Purnell | Chinese name (geographical) | Chinese name (general) | Ratliff | Dress-color name |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
chua1248 |
Hmong | lol Hmongb | Sichuan–Guizhou–Yunnan Miao | 川黔滇苗 Chuanqiandian Miao | Western Miao 苗语西部方言 | West Hmongic | White, Blue/Green, etc. |
larg1235 |
Ahmao[a] | ad Hmaob lul | Northeast Yunnan Miao | 滇东北次苗 Diandongbeici Miao | Western Miao 苗语西部方言 | West Hmongic | Flowery Miao (大花苗) |
nort2748 |
Xong | dut Xongb | Western Hunan Miao | 湘西苗 Xiangxi Miao | Eastern Miao 苗语东部方言 | North Hmongic | Red Miao |
east2369 |
Hmu | hveb Hmub | Eastern Guizhou Miao | 黔东苗 Qiandong Miao | Central Miao 苗语中部方言 | East Hmongic | Black Miao |
- ^ Local Chinese for Flowery Miao. No common name. Miao speakers use forms like Hmong (Mong), Hmang (Mang), Hmao, Hmyo. Yao speakers use names based on Nu.
The Hunan Province Gazetteer (1997) gives the following autonyms for various peoples in Hunan classified by the Chinese government as Miao.
- Xiangxi Prefecture: gho Xong (果雄), ghe Xong (仡熊), (guo Chu 果楚) [ceremonial]
- Luxi County and Guzhang County: ghao So (缩), te Suang (爽)
- Jingzhou County, Huaihua: Hmu (目), (Nai Mu 乃目)
- Chengbu County, Shaoyang: Hmao (髳)
Classification
Hmongic is one of the primary branches of the
Purnell (1970)
Purnell (1970) divided the Miao languages into Eastern, Northern, Central, and Western subgroups.[3]
Strecker (1987)
Strecker's classification is as follows:[2]
- Hmongic (Miao)
- West Hunan = Xong = Xiangxi(Northern Hmongic)
- East Guizhou = Mhu = Qiandong(Eastern Hmongic)
- Pa Hng
- Hm Nai = Wunai
- Kiong Nai = Jiongnai
- Yu Nuo = Younuo
- Sichuan–Guizhou–Yunnan = Chuanqiangdian(Western Hmongic, including Bu–Nao) (See)
- West Hunan = Xong =
In a follow-up to that paper in the same publication, Strecker tentatively removed Pa-Hng, Wunai, Jiongnai, and Yunuo, positing that they may be independent branches of Miao–Yao, with the possibility that Yao was the first of these to branch off. Effectively, this means that Miao/Hmongic would consist of six branches:
Matisoff (2001)
Matisoff followed the basic outline of Strecker (1987), apart from consolidating the
- Hmongic (Miao)
Wang & Deng (2003)
Wang & Deng (2003) is one of the few Chinese sources which integrate the
- She
- (main branch)
- (Hunan–Guangxi)
- Jiongnai
- (other)
- Western Hunan (Northern Hmongic / Xong)
- Younuo–Pa-Hng
- (Guizhou–Yunnan)
- Eastern Guizhou (Eastern Hmongic / Hmu)
- (Western)
- (Hunan–Guangxi)
Matisoff (2006)
Matisoff (2006) outlined the following. Not all varieties are listed.[6]
- Northern Hmong = West Hunan (Xong)
- Western Hmong(See)
- Central Hmong
- Longli Miao
- Guizhu
- Eastern Guizhou (Hmu)
- Daigong
- Kaili(= Northern)
- Lushan
- Taijiang(= Northern)
- Zhenfeng(= Northern)
- Phö
- Rongjiang(= Southern)
- Patengic
- Pateng
- Yongcong
Matisoff also indicates Hmongic influence on
Ratliff (2010)
The Hmongic classification below is from Martha Ratliff (2010:3).[7]
Ratliff (2010) notes that
Taguchi (2012)
Yoshihisa Taguchi's (2012, 2013) computational phylogenetic study classifies the Hmongic languages as follows.[8][9]
Hsiu (2015, 2018)
Hsiu's (2015, 2018)[10][11] computational phylogenetic study classifies the Hmongic languages as follows, based primarily on lexical data from Chen (2013).[12]
Comparison
Language | One | Two | Three | Four | Five | Six | Seven | Eight | Nine | Ten |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Proto-Hmong-Mien | *ʔɨ | *ʔu̯i | *pjɔu | *plei | *prja | *kruk | *dzjuŋH | *jat | *N-ɟuə | *ɡju̯əp |
Pa-Hng (Gundong) | ji˩ | wa˧˥ | po˧˥ | ti˧˥ | tja˧˥ | tɕu˥ | tɕaŋ˦ | ji˦˨ | ko˧ | ku˦˨ |
Wunai (Longhui) | i˧˥ | ua˧˥ | po˧˥ | tsi˧˥ | pia˧˥ | tju˥ | tɕa˨˩ | ɕi˧˩ | ko˧ | kʰu˧˩ |
Younuo | je˨ | u˧ | pje˧ | pwɔ˧ | pi˧ | tjo˧˥ | sɔŋ˧˩ | ja˨˩ | kiu˩˧ | kwə˨˩ |
Jiongnai | ʔi˥˧ | u˦ | pa˦ | ple˦ | pui˦ | tʃɔ˧˥ | ʃaŋ˨ | ʑe˧˨ | tʃu˧ | tʃɔ˧˥ |
She (Chenhu) | i˧˥ | u˨ | pa˨ | pi˧˥ | pi˨ | kɔ˧˩ | tsʰuŋ˦˨ | zi˧˥ | kjʰu˥˧ | kjʰɔ˧˥ |
Western Xong (Layiping) | ɑ˦ | ɯ˧˥ | pu˧˥ | pʐei˧˥ | pʐɑ˧˥ | ʈɔ˥˧ | tɕoŋ˦˨ | ʑi˧ | tɕo˧˩ | ku˧ |
Eastern Xong (Xiaozhang) | a˧ | u˥˧ | pu˥˧ | ɬei˥˧ | pja˥˧ | to˧ | zaŋ˩˧ | ʑi˧˥ | ɡɯ˧˨ | ɡu˧˥ |
Northern Qiandong Miao (Yanghao) | i˧ | o˧ | pi˧ | l̥u˧ | tsa˧ | tʲu˦ | ɕoŋ˩˧ | ʑa˧˩ | tɕə˥ | tɕu˧˩ |
Southern Qiandong Miao (Yaogao) | tiŋ˨˦ | v˩˧ | pai˩˧ | tl̥ɔ˩˧ | tɕi˩˧ | tju˦ | tsam˨ | ʑi˨˦ | tɕu˧˩ | tɕu˨˦ |
Pu No (Du'an) | i˦˥˦ | aːɤ˦˥˦ | pe˦˥˦ | pla˦˥˦ | pu˦˥˦ | tɕu˦˨˧ | saŋ˨˩˨ | jo˦˨ | tɕu˨ | tɕu˦˨ |
Nao Klao (Nandan) | i˦˨ | uɔ˦˨ | pei˦˨ | tlja˦˨ | ptsiu˧ | tɕau˧˨ | sɒ˧˩ | jou˥˦ | tɕau˨˦ | tɕau˥˦ |
Nu Mhou (Libo) | tɕy˧ | yi˧ | pa˧ | tləu˧ | pja˧ | tjɤ˦ | ɕoŋ˧˩ | ja˧˨ | tɕɤ˥ | tɕɤ˧˨ |
Nunu (Linyun) | i˥˧ | əu˥˧ | pe˥˧ | tɕa˥˧ | pɤ˥˧ | tɕu˨˧ | ʂɔŋ˨ | jo˨ | tɕu˧˨ | tɕu˨ |
Tung Nu (Qibainong) | i˥ | au˧ | pe˧ | tɬa˧ | pjo˧ | ʈu˦˩ | sɔŋ˨˩ | ʑo˨˩ | tɕu˩˧ | tɕu˨˩ |
Pa Na | ʔa˧˩ | ʔu˩˧ | pa˩˧ | tɬo˩˧ | pei˩˧ | kjo˧˥ | ɕuŋ˨ | ʑa˥˧ | tɕʰu˧˩˧ | tɕo˥˧ |
Hmong Shuat (Funing) | ʔi˥ | ʔau˥ | pʲei˥ | plɔu˥ | pʒ̩˥ | tʃɔu˦ | ɕaŋ˦ | ʑi˨˩ | tɕa˦˨ | kɔu˨˩ |
Hmong Dleub (Guangnan) | ʔi˥ | ʔɑu˥ | pei˥ | plou˥ | tʃɹ̩˥ | ʈɻou˦ | ɕã˦ | ʑi˨˩ | tɕuɑ˦˨ | kou˨˩ |
Hmong Nzhuab (Maguan) | ʔi˥˦ | ʔau˦˧ | pei˥˦ | plou˥˦ | tʃɹ̩˥˦ | ʈou˦ | ɕaŋ˦ | ʑi˨ | tɕuɑ˦˨ | kou˨ |
Northeastern Dian Miao (Shimenkan) | i˥ | a˥ | tsɿ˥[14] | tl̥au˥ | pɯ˥ | tl̥au˧ | ɕaɯ˧ | ʑʱi˧˩ | dʑʱa˧˥ | ɡʱau˧˩ |
Raojia | i˦ | ɔ˦ | poi˦ | ɬɔ˦ | pja˦ | tju˧ | ɕuŋ˨ | ʑa˥˧ | tɕa˥ | tɕu˥˧ |
Xijia Miao (Shibanzhai) | i˥ | u˧˩ | pzɿ˧˩[14] | pləu˧˩ | pja˧˩ | ʈo˨˦ | zuŋ˨˦ | ja˧ | ja˧˩ | ʁo˧˩ |
Gejia | i˧ | a˧ | tsɪ˧˩ | plu˧ | tsia˧ | tɕu˥ | saŋ˧˩ | ʑa˩˧ | tɕa˨˦ | ku˩˧ |
Writing
The Hmongic languages have been written with at least a dozen different scripts,[15] none of which has been universally accepted among Hmong people as standard. Tradition has it that the ancestors of the Hmong, the Nanman, had a written language with a few pieces of significant literature. When the Han-era Chinese began to expand southward into the land of the Hmong, whom they considered barbarians, the script of the Hmong was lost, according to many stories. Allegedly, the script was preserved in the clothing. Attempts at revival were made by the creation of a script in the Qing Dynasty, but this was also brutally suppressed and no remnant literature has been found. Adaptations of Chinese characters have been found in Hunan, recently.[16] However, this evidence and mythological understanding is disputed. For example, according to Professor S. Robert Ramsey, there was no writing system among the Miao until the missionaries created them.[17] It is currently unknown for certain whether or not the Hmong had a script historically.
Around 1905,
In the 1950s, pinyin-based Latin alphabets were devised by the Chinese government for three varieties of Miao:
Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was created by Reverend Chervang Kong Vang to be able to capture Hmong vocabulary clearly and also to remedy redundancies in the language as well as address semantic confusions that was lacking in other scripts. This was created in the 1980s and was mainly used by United Christians Liberty Evangelical Church, a church also founded by Vang. The script bears strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from the Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different.[20]
Mixed languages
Due to intensive language contact, there are several language varieties in China which are thought to be mixed Miao–Chinese languages or Sinicized Miao. These include:
- Lingling(Linghua) of northern Guangxi
- The Maojia dialect (also called Aoka or Qingyi Miao) of Chengbu Miao Autonomous County, Hunan (located near Pana-speaking villages), and Ziyuan County and Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County, Guangxi.
- Xinning County, Hunan
- Laba 喇叭: more than 200,000 in Qinglong, Shuicheng, Pu'an, and Panxian in Guizhou; a variety of Old Xiang (also called Lou-Shao 娄邵片).[21] The people are also called Huguangren 湖广人, because they claim their ancestors had migrated from Huguang (modern-day Hunan and Hubei).[22]
- Baishi Miao 拜师苗 of Baishi District, Tianzhu County, eastern Guizhou, possibly a mixed Chinese and Miao (Hmu) language[23]
- Sanqiao, a mixed Hmu-Kam (Miao-Dong) language of southeastern Guizhou
In southwestern Hunan, divergent Sinitic language varieties spoken by Miao and Yao peoples include:[24]
- Guanxia Pinghua 关峡平话, spoken by ethnic Miao in Suining County, Hunan. Non-Sinitic substrate words include kəu213 'egg'.[25]
- Yangshi Pinghua 羊石平话, spoken by ethnic Miao in Chengbu County, Hunan. Non-Sinitic substrate words include ko11 'egg'.[26]
- Chengbu County, Hunan
- Chengbu County, Hunan
- Malin 麻林人话, spoken by ethnic Yao in Xinning County, Hunan
- Niutou 牛头人话, spoken by ethnic Miao in Longsheng County, Guangxi
See also
- Proto-Hmong-Mien reconstructions (Wiktionary)
- Proto-Hmongic reconstructions (Wiktionary)
- Hmong-Mien comparative vocabulary list (Wiktionary)
References
- ISBN 082232444X. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- ^ a b Strecker, David (1987). "The Hmong-Mien Languages" (PDF). Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 10 (2): 1–11.
- ^ Purnell, Herbert C., Jr. 1970. Toward a reconstruction of Proto-Miao-Yao. PhD dissertation, Cornell University.
- ^ Strecker, David. (1987). "Some comments on Benedict's 'Miao-Yao enigma: the Na-e language'" (PDF). Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 10 (2): 22–42.
- ^ 王士元、邓晓华,《苗瑶语族语言亲缘关系的计量研究——词源统计分析方法》,《中国语文》,2003(294)。
- ^ Matisoff, 2006. "Genetic versus Contact Relationship". In Aikhenvald & Dixon, Areal diffusion and genetic inheritance.
- ^ Ratliff, Martha. 2010. Hmong–Mien language history. Canberra, Australia: Pacific Linguistics.
- ^ Yoshihisa Taguchi [田口善久] (2012). On the Phylogeny of the Hmong-Mien languages Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine. Conference in Evolutionary Linguistics 2012.
- ^ Yoshihisa, Taguchi [田口善久] (2013). On the phylogeny of Hmongic languages. Presented at the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS 23), Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.
- ^ Hsiu, Andrew. 2015. The classification of Na Meo, a Hmong-Mien language of Vietnam. Paper presented at SEALS 25, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
- ^ Hsiu, Andrew. 2018. Preliminary classification of Hmongic languages.
- ISBN 9787566003263
- ^ "Miao-Yao". Archived from the original on 2011-11-21. Retrieved 2012-09-29.
- ^ a b ɿ is commonly used by Sinologists to mean [ɨ].
- ^ "Hmong Archives – preserving the Hmong heritage". www.hmongarchives.org.
- ^ "Hunan Shaoyang Relics Indicate Written Language of Miao Ethnic Group 湖南首次发现古苗文实物:苗族有语言也有文字 - News Today 今日新闻 - 3Us Community :Hunan Bilingual Forum——尚友国际社区:湖南最大双语论坛". Archived from the original on 2014-07-28. Retrieved 2014-07-28.
- ISBN 069101468X. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- ^ Tanya Storch Religions and missionaries around the Pacific, 1500-1900 2006 p293
- ^ 苗文创制与苗语方言划分的历史回顾 Archived 2011-11-04 at the Wayback Machine
Other branches had been left unclassified. - ^ Everson, Michael (2017-02-15). "L2/17-002R3: Proposal to encode the Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script in the UCS" (PDF).
- OCLC 1137079712.
- ^ "Operation China" (PDF). Retrieved 2018-09-30.
- ^ "Chinese peoples info" (PDF). asiaharvest.org.
- OCLC 1073112896.
- ^ Hu (2018):98)
- ^ Hu (2018):98)
Further reading
- Li Jinping, Li Tianyi [李锦平, 李天翼]. 2012. A comparative study of Miao dialects [苗语方言比较研究]. Chengdu: Southwest Jiaotong University Press.
External links
- 283-word wordlist recording in Wuding Maojie Hmong (Dianxi Miao) dialect (F, 31), elicited in Standard Mandarin, archived with Kaipuleohone.