Hmong people
𖬌𖬣𖬵 | |
---|---|
Bắc Hà, Vietnam | |
Total population | |
4–5 million[1] | |
Regions with significant populations | |
China | 2,777,039 (2000, estimate)[note 1][1] |
Vietnam | 1,393,547 (2019)[2] |
Laos | 595,028 (2015)[3] |
United States | 368,609 (2021)[4] |
Thailand | 250,070 (2015) |
Myanmar | 40,000 |
Argentina | 600 (1999)[5] |
Australia | 3,438 (2011)[6] |
France (French Guiana) | 2,000 (2001)[7] |
France | 15,000[5] |
Canada | 600 (1999)[5] |
Languages | |
Native: Hmong Regional: Chinese, Thai, Vietnamese, Lao, French, English, Burmese | |
Religion | |
Shamanism • Christianity • Buddhism |
The Hmong people (
Etymology
The term Hmong is the English pronunciation of the Hmong's native name. It is a singular and plural noun (e.g., Japanese, French, etc.). When pronouncing the term Hmong, the "G" is silent.[8] More recently the silent "H" has been based on preference. This is mainly because when pronouncing it in the Hmong Leng (Leeg) dialect the "H" is absent (i.e., Moob), while it is not in the Hmong Der (Dawb) dialect (i.e., Hmoob).[9] Very little is known about the native Hmong name as it isn't mentioned in Chinese historical records, since the Han identified the Hmong as Miao. The meaning of it is debatable and no one is sure of its origin, although it can be traced back to several provinces in China. However, most Hmong Americans and Hmong Laotians often associate it with "Free" and/or "Hmoov" (Fate); it serves as a reminder to them of their history of fighting oppression.[10][11]
Before the 1970s, the term Miao or Meo (meaning "cats", "
Soon after, there was a political push from Hmong American politicians and activists to replace the term Miao with the term Hmong in China with little to no success. To date, China is the only country that doesn't recognize the term Hmong. Rather, they are still categorized under the umbrella term Miáo (苗) along with three other indigenous groups of people by the government since 1949. Historically, the term Miao carried strong pejorative connotations in both China and Southeast Asia. In modern times, however, it has lost such negative connotations in China and has since been officially recognized as an ethnicity, which includes the Hmong. The Hmong in China are often happy or proud to be known as Miao while many Hmong outside China find it offensive.[17][18]
Little is known about the origin of the Miao term and the people it referenced historically, since the Han used it loosely to identify non-Han in Southern China.[19] Its origin can be dated before the Qin dynasty (221 BCE). Thereafter it was perceived as barbaric, especially during the Miao's rebellions against the Ming and Qing dynasties between the 1300s and early 1900s.[20] The history of these wars is still chanted by guides during Hmong funerals when guiding the spirits of the deceased individuals to their origins so they can reincarnate. They are known as Qeej Ntau Rog/Qeej Ntau Suav (Wars with the Han) and Hlais Suav (Slice Han).[21][22]
In Southeast Asia, Hmong people are referred to by other names, including: Vietnamese Mèo, Mông or H'Mông; Lao Maew (ແມ້ວ) or Mong (ມົ້ງ); Thai Maew (แม้ว) or Mong (ม้ง); and Burmese mun lu-myo (မုံလူမျိုး). With a slight change in accent, the word "Meo" in Lao and Thai can be pronounced to mean "cat".[23][24] The term Maew and Meo derived from the term Miao.[25]
Origins
Genetic origins
A DNA study in 2005 in Thailand found that Hmong paternal lineage is quite different from lu Mien and other Southeast Asian tribes. The Hmong-Mien and Sino-Tibetan speaking people are known as hill tribes in Thailand; they were the subject of the first studies to show an impact of patrilocality vs. matrilocality on patterns of mitochondrial (mt) DNA vs. the male-specific portion of the Y chromosome (MSY) variation. According to linguist Martha Ratliff, there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied some of the same areas of southern China for over 8,000 years.[26] Evidence from mitochondrial DNA in Hmong–Mien–speaking populations supports the existence of southern origins of maternal lineages even further back in time, although it has been shown that Hmong-speaking populations had comparatively more contact with northern East Asians than had the Mien.[27]
Homeland
The most likely
Migration of people speaking these languages from South China to
The time of
History
China
Hmong traditions and legends indicate that they originated near the Yellow River region of northern China, but this is not substantiated by any scientific evidence.[32] According to linguist Martha Ratliff, there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied some of the same areas of southern China for over 8,000 years.[26] Evidence from mitochondrial DNA in Hmong–Mien–speaking populations supports the southern origins of maternal lineages even farther back in time, although it has been shown that Hmong-speaking populations had comparatively more contact with northern East Asians than had the Mien.[27] A rare haplogroup, O3d, was found at the Daxi culture in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, indicating that the Daxi people might be the ancestors of modern Hmong-Mien populations, which show only small traces of O3d today.[33]
In 2011, Hmong DNA was sampled and found to contain 7.84% D-M15 and 6%N(Tat) DNA.[36] The research found a common ancestry between Hmong-Mien peoples and Mon-Khmer groups dating to the Last Glacial Maximum, approximately 15,000 to 18,000 years ago.
Conflict between the Hmong of southern China and newly arrived Han settlers increased during the 18th century under repressive economic and cultural reforms imposed by the
The Hmong people were subjected to persecution and genocide by the Qing dynasty government. Kim Lacy Rogers wrote: "In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, while the Hmong lived in south-western China, their Manchu overlords had labeled them 'Miao' and targeted them for genocide."[38]
Since 1949, the Miao people (Chinese: 苗族; pinyin: miáo zú) has been an official term for one of the 56 official minority groups recognized by the government of the People's Republic of China. The Miao live mainly in southern China, in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Hainan, Guangdong, and Hubei. According to the 2000 census, the number of 'Miao' in China was estimated to be about 9.6 million. The Miao nationality includes Hmong people as well as other culturally and linguistically related ethnic groups who do not call themselves Hmong. These include the Hmu, Kho (Qho) Xiong, and A-Hmao. The White Miao (Bai Miao) and Green Miao (Qing Miao).
Vietnam
The Hmong or Miao began to migrate to Tonkin (Northern Vietnam) in 19th century, where they struggled to establish their community on the high mountains. They recognized the Tai-speaking overlords of valleys, who were vassals of the Vietnamese court in Hue. The Hue court of
During the colonization of '
Laos
After decades of distant relations with the Lao kingdoms, closer relations between the French military and some Hmong on the Xieng Khouang plateau arose after
The U.S. and the Laotian Civil War
In the early 1960s, partially as a result of the
While there were Hmong soldiers who fought with the communist Pathet Lao and the North Vietnamese, others were recognized for serving in combat against the NVA and the Pathet Lao, helping block Hanoi's Ho Chi Minh trail inside Laos and rescuing downed American pilots. Though their role was generally kept secret in the early stages of the conflict, they made great sacrifices to help the U.S.[44]
Thousands of
Hmong Lao resistance
For many years, the Neo Hom political movement played a key role in resistance to the
Small groups of Hmong people, many second or third generation descendants of former CIA soldiers, remain internally displaced in remote parts of Laos, in fear of government reprisals. Faced with continuing military operations against them by the government and a scarcity of food, some groups have begun coming out of hiding, while others have sought asylum in Thailand and other countries.[50] Hmong in Laos, in particular, developed a stronger and deeper anti-Vietnamese sentiment than their Vietnamese Hmong cousins, due to historic persecution perpetrated by the Vietnamese against them.
Controversy over repatriation
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (February 2018) |
In June 1991, after talks with the UNHCR and the Thai government, Laos agreed to the repatriation of over 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including tens of thousands of Hmong people. Very few of the Lao refugees, however, were willing to return voluntarily.[51] Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps. While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, coercive measures and forced repatriation was used to send thousands of Hmong back to the places they had fled.[52][53] Of the Hmong who did return to Laos, some quickly escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities.[54]
In the 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s,
Amnesty International, the Lao Veterans of America, Inc., the United League for Democracy in Laos, Inc., Lao Human Rights Council, Inc. (led by Dr. Pobzeb Vang Vang Pobzeb, and later Vaughn Vang) and other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and human rights organizations joined the opposition to forced repatriation.[46]
Although some accusations of forced repatriation were denied,
In 2003, following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the U.S., in a significant victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees.
The European Union,[62] UNHCHR, and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation.[62][63][64][65]
Alleged plot to overthrow the government of Laos
On 4 June 2007, as part of an investigation labeled
To obtain the weapons, Jack allegedly met unknowingly with undercover U.S. federal agents posing as weapons dealers, prompting the warrants, part of a long-running investigation into the activities of the U.S.-based Hmong leadership and its supporters.
On 15 June, the defendants were indicted by a grand jury; a warrant was also issued for the arrest of an 11th man allegedly involved in the plot. Simultaneous raids of the defendants' homes and work locations, involving over 200 federal, state and local law enforcement officials, were conducted in approximately 15 cities in Central and Southern California in the US.
Multiple protest rallies in support of the suspects, designed to raise awareness of the treatment of Hmong peoples in the jungles of Laos, took place in California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Alaska. Several of Vang Pao's high-level supporters in the U.S. criticized the California court that issued the arrest warrants, arguing that Vang was a historically important American ally and a valued leader of U.S. and foreign-based Hmong. Calls to Californian Republican Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and President George W. Bush to pardon the defendants went unanswered pending a conclusion to the large, ongoing federal investigation.[67]
On 18 September 2009, the US federal government dropped all charges against Vang Pao, announcing that the federal government was permitted to consider "the probable sentence or other consequences if the person is convicted."[68] On 10 January 2011, after Vang Pao's death, the federal government dropped all charges against the remaining defendants saying, "Based on the totality of the circumstances in the case, the government believes, as a discretionary matter, that continued prosecution of defendants is no longer warranted."[69]
Thailand
The presence of Hmong settlements in Thailand is documented from the end of the 19th century on. Initially, the
In the United States
Many Hmong refugees resettled in the United States after the
Culture
In the Romanized Popular Alphabet, developed in the 1950s in Laos, these terms are written Hmoob Dawb (White Hmong) and Hmoob Leeg (Green Hmong). The final consonants indicate with which of the eight lexical tones the word is pronounced.[74]
White Hmong and Green Hmong speak mutually intelligible dialects of the
Vietnam and Laos
The Hmong groups in Vietnam and Laos, from the 18th century to the present day, are known as Black Hmong (Hmoob Dub), Striped Hmong (Hmoob Txaij), White Hmong (Hmoob Dawb), Hmong Leng (Hmoob Leeg) and Green Hmong (Hmoob Ntsuab). In other places in Asia, groups are also known as Black Hmong (Hmoob Dub or Hmong Dou), Striped Hmong (Hmoob Txaij or Hmoob Quas Npab), Hmong Shi, Hmong Pe, Hmong Pua, and Hmong Xau, Hmong Xanh (Green Hmong), Hmong Do (Red Hmong), Na Mieo and various other subgroups.[74] These include the Flower Hmong or the Variegated Hmong (Hmong Lenh or Hmong Hoa), so named because of their bright, colorful embroidery work (called pa ndau or paj ntaub, literally "flower cloth").[75]
Hmong/Mong controversy
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (February 2018) |
When Western authors first came in contact with Hmong people in the 18th century, they referred to them by writing
The issue came to a head during the passage of
Dr. Paoze Thao and some others strongly feel that "Hmong" can only be used in reference to Hmong Der people because it does not include "Mong" Leng people. He feels that the use of "Hmong" in reference to both groups perpetuates the marginalization of the Mong Leng language and culture. Thus, he advocates the use of "Hmong" and "Mong" in reference to the entire ethnic group.
As a compromise alternative, multiple iterations of "Hmong" have been proposed. A Hmong theologian, Rev. Dr. Paul Joseph T. Khamdy Yang has proposed the use of the term "HMong" in reference to the Hmong and the Mong communities by capitalizing the H and the M. The ethnologist Jacques Lemoine has also begun to use the term (H)mong in reference to the entirety of the Hmong and Mong communities.[1]
Hmong and Miao
Some non-Chinese Hmong advocate for the term 'Hmong' to be used not only to designate their dialect group but also other Miao groups living in China.[citation needed] They generally claim that the word "Miao" or "Meo" is a derogatory term, with connotations of barbarism, that probably should not be used at all. The term was later adopted by Tai-speaking groups in Southeast Asia where it took on especially insulting associations for Hmong people despite its official status.[84]
In modern China, the term "Miao" does not carry these negative associations, and people of the various sub-groups that constitute this officially recognized nationality freely identify themselves as Miao or Chinese, typically reserving more specific ethnonyms for intra-ethnic communication. During the struggle for political recognition after 1949, it was members of these ethnic minorities who campaigned for identification under the umbrella term "Miao" – taking advantage of its familiarity and associations of historical political oppression.[85]
Contemporary transnational interactions between Hmong in the West and Miao groups in China, following the 1975 Hmong emigration, led to the development of a global Hmong identity that includes linguistically and culturally related minorities in China with no previous ethnic affiliation.[86] Scholarly and commercial exchanges, increasingly made over the internet, have also resulted in an exchange of terminology, including some Hmong people accepting the designation "Miao" after visiting China and some nationalist non-Hmong Miao peoples identifying as Hmong.[84] Such realignments of identity, while largely the concern of economically elite community leaders reflects a trend towards the interchangeability of the terms "Hmong" and "Miao."[87]
Diaspora
Linguistic data shows that the Hmong of the peninsula stem from the Miao of southern China as one among a set of ethnic groups belonging to the Hmong–Mien language family.[88] Linguistically and culturally speaking, the Hmong and the other sub-groups of the Miao have little in common.[89]
In 2015, the Hmong in Laos numbered 595,028.[92] Hmong settlement there is nearly as ancient as in Vietnam.
After the 1975 Communist victory, thousands of Hmong from Laos had to seek refuge abroad (see Laos below). Approximately 30 percent of the Hmong have left, although the only concrete figure we have is that of 116,000 Hmong from Laos and Vietnam together seeking refuge in Thailand up to 1990.[93]
In 2002 the Hmong in Thailand numbered 151,080.
Myanmar most likely includes a modest number of Hmong (perhaps around 2,500) but no reliable census has been conducted there recently.[94]
As result of refugee movements in the wake of the Indochina Wars (1946–1975), in particular, in Laos, the largest Hmong community to settle outside Asia went to the United States where approximately 100,000 individuals had already arrived by 1990. By the same date, 10,000 Hmong had migrated to France, including 1,400 in French Guiana; Canada admitted 900 individuals, while another 360 went to Australia, 260 to China, and 250 to Argentina. Over the following years and until the definitive closure of the last refugee camps in Thailand in 1998, additional numbers of Hmong have left Asia, but the definitive figures are still to be produced.[95]
Approximately 5% of the Hmong population currently lives outside of Asia, with the United States home to the largest Hmong diaspora community. The 2008 census counted 171,316 people solely of Hmong ancestry, and 221,948 persons of at least partial Hmong ancestry.[96] Other countries with significant populations include:[97]
- France: 15,000
- Australia: 2,000
- French Guiana: 1,500
- Canada: 835
- Argentina: 600
The Hmong population within the United States is centered in the Upper Midwest (Wisconsin, Minnesota) and California.[98]
Vietnam
Hmong people in Vietnam have been perceived differently by various modern political organizations and in different historical periods. Since the Hmong are an ethnic minority in Vietnam, their loyalty toward the Vietnamese state has been frequently questioned by the state. However, many Hmong in Vietnam are fiercely loyal, regardless of the current ideologies of the government;[99] the Hmong in Laos and Cambodia are the most supportive of active resistance. These tend to be Hmong Christians that have been targeted by all three Indochinese governments.[100] The Hmong in Vietnam also receive cultural and political incentives from the government,[101] which led to the Vietnamese Hmong further diverging from the Laotian Hmong, since the latter are strongly anti-Vietnamese due to the Secret War and Communism.
Laos
There are 595,028 Hmong people in Laos. They mainly live in northern regions.
Thailand
The Hmong presence in Thailand dates back to the turn of the 20th century when families migrated from China through Laos and Burma, according to most authors. A relatively small population, they still formed dozens of villages and hamlets throughout the northern provinces. The Hmong were registered by the state as the Meo hill tribe. Then, more Hmong migrated from Laos to Thailand following the victory of the Pathet Lao in 1975. While some ended up in refugee camps, others settled in mountainous areas among more ancient Hill Tribes.[102]
Americas
Many Hmong refugees resettled in the United States after the
In terms of cities and towns, the largest Hmong-American community is in
There are smaller Hmong communities scattered across the United States, including those in Minnesota (
Sunisa "Suni" Lee of Saint Paul, Minnesota is a notable Hmong-American; she is a three time Olympic medalist in artistic gymnastics. In the 2020 Summer Olympics, Lee won silver in the women's artistic team all-around, followed by gold in the women's artistic individual all-around and bronze in the women's uneven bars. With these results, Sunisa made history as both the first Hmong-American to compete in the Olympics in any sport and the first Hmong-American to win an Olympic medal.[106]
Canada's small Hmong population is mostly concentrated within the province of Ontario. Kitchener, Ontario has 515 residents of Hmong descent, and has a Hmong church.[107][108]
There is also a small community of several thousand Hmong who migrated to French Guiana in the late 1970s and early 1980s,[109] that can be mainly found in the Hmong villages of Javouhey (1200 individuals) and Cacao (950 individuals).
The Hmong immigrant population of Detroit is a central focus of the 2008 film Gran Torino, though that city does not have a significant Hmong population.
Religious persecution
Hmong
A significant example was the deportation of Zoua Yang and her 27 children from Thailand on 19 December 2005, after the group was arrested attending a church in Ban Kho Noi, Phetchabun Province, Thailand. Ms. Yang and her children were detained upon their return to Laos, after which the whereabouts of much of the family is unknown.[111]
In 2011,
The
See also
- Chi You, (Huab Tais Txiv Yawg) a noted ancestor of the Hmong People
- Hmong churches
- Hmong cuisine
- Hmong customs and culture
- Hmong funeral
- Hmong music
- Hmong textile art
- Indochina refugee crisis
- Ban Phou Pheung Noi
- Wangyee Vang
- Vang Pobzeb
- Vang Pao
- List of Hmong people
- Long Tieng
- Sheboygan Hmong Memorial
- The Art of Not Being Governed
- Bhutanese people
- Khmu people
- Nepalis
- Nyaw people
- Tai Dam people
- Tibetans
- Burmese people
Notes
- ^ There is no official census of the Hmong people in China, as they are classified as a subgroup of the Miao people there.
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- ^ Pfeifer, Mark (compiler). University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire"Hmong Population Research Project – Population". Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 7 August 2011. archived 25 July 2008 from the original Archived 22 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Pike, Matthew (29 April 2018). "The History of Vietnam's Hmong Community". Culture Trip. Retrieved 20 January 2020.
- ^ "Hmong Catholics keep faith in Vietnam despite hardship - UCA News". ucanews.com.
- ^ "Hmong People in Vietnam". vietnamroyaltourism.com.
- ^ Baird, Ian G. (2013). The monks and the Hmong: The special relationship between the Chao Fa and the Tham Krabok Buddhist Temple in Saraburi Province, Thailand. In Vladimir Tikhonov and Torkel Brekke (eds.), Violent Buddhism – Buddhism and Militarism in Asia in the Twentieth Century. London: Routledge. pp. 120–151.
- ^ a b c "Census.gov". Census.gov.
- ^ "Census Bureau Homepage". Census.gov. 25 May 2012. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
- ^ "Rhode Island's Hmong-Lao community to mark 40 years of resettlement". The Providence Journal. 8 May 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
- ^ Rob Mentzer (29 July 2021). "Hmong Community Rejoices As Sunisa Lee Becomes First Hmong American Gold Medalist". Wisconsin Public Radio.
- ^ Canada, Government of Canada, Statistics (8 May 2013). "2011 National Household Survey Profile – Census subdivision".
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ The Hmong, 1987–1995: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography, Diane Publishing
- ^ "Info about the Hmong in French Guyana – KaYing Yang, Hmong Cultural Center, 1994". 1 September 2007. Archived from the original on 1 September 2007. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
- ^ "Laos, Vietnam Troops Execute 4 Hmong Christians" (Press release). Center for Public Policy Analysis. 16 April 2011 – via Scoop News.
Laotian and Hmong minority Christian and Animist believers continue to be hunted, brutally tortured, and killed by the Lao military in significant numbers in key provinces in Laos.
- ^ "H.Res. 992 (115th): Condemning the actions taken by the Lao People's Democratic Republic against the Hmong ChaoFa Indigenous people, and for other purposes" – via GovTrack.
- ^ "Agence France Press (AFP), (6 May 2011) "Vietnam troops 'use force' at rare Hmong protest"".
- ^ Correspondent, Our Vietnam (28 March 2013). "Hmong Christian Leader in Vietnam Beaten to Death in Police Custody, Sources Say". Morningstar News.
- ^ "Hanoi Hospitals Refuse Treatment to Ailing Hmong Christian Leader". Radio Free Asia.
- ^ "Agence France Press (AFP), (15 April 2011) "Laos, Vietnam troops kill four Hmong Christians: NGO"".
Sources
- Fadiman, Anne (1997). ISBN 0-374-26781-2.
- Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, 'Chiang Mai's Hill Peoples' in: Ancient Chiang Mai Volume 3. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books, 2012. ASIN B006IN1RNW.
- Hillmer, Paul. A People's History of the Hmong (Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2010). 327 pages. ISBN 978-0-87351-726-3.
- [TYPN 1992] The section on nomenclature draws heavily on Thai-Yunnan Project Newsletter, Number 17, June 1992, Department of Anthropology, Australian National University. Material from that newsletter may be freely reproduced with due acknowledgment.
- W.R. Geddes. Migrants of the Mountains: The Cultural Ecology of the Blue Miao (Hmong Njua) of Thailand. Oxford, England: The Clarendon Press, 1976.
- Tapp, N., J.Michaud, C.Culasc, G.Y.Lee (Eds.) (2004). Hmong/Miao in Asia. Chiang Mai (Thailand): Silkworm. 500 pages.
- University of IllinoisPress; 2011) 200 pages; Combines scholarly and personal perspectives in an ethnographic history of the Hmong refugee experience in the United States.
- "Hmong in Minnesota". Minnesota Historical Society, Explore Minnesota.
Further reading
- Edkins, The Miau-tsi Tribes. Foochow: 1870.
- Henry, Lingnam. London: 1886.
- Bourne, Journey in Southwest China. London: 1888.
- A. H. Keaw, Man: Past and Present. Cambridge: 1900.
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Johnson, Charles. Dab Neeg Hmoob: Myths, Legends and Folk Tales from the Hmong of Laos. St. Paul, Minnesota: Macalester College, 1983. – bilingual oral literature anthology, includes introduction and explanatory notes from a language professor who had sponsored the first Hmong family to arrive in Minnesota
- Lee, Mai Na M. "The Thousand-Year Myth: Construction and Characterization of Hmong." (Archive) Hmong Studies Journal. v2n2. Northern hemisphere Spring 1998.
- Meneses, Rashaan. "Hmong: An Endangered People." UCLA International Institute.
- Merritt, Tragic Mountains: The Hmong, the Americans, and the Secret Wars for Laos, 1942–1992. Indiana: 1999.
- Mottin, Father Jean. History of the Hmong. Bangkok: Odeon Store, 1980. written in Khek Noi, a Hmong village in northern Thailand, Translated into English by an Irish nun, printed in Bangkok.
- Quincy, Keith. Cheney, Wash.: Eastern Washington University Press, 1988.
- Savina, F.M. Histoire des Miao. 2nd Edition. Hong Kong: Impremerie de la Société des Missions-Etrangères de Paris, 1930. Written by a French missionary who worked in Laos and Tonkin.
- George, William Lloyd. "Hmong Refugees Live in Fear in Laos and Thailand." TIME. Saturday 24 July 2010.
- Hookaway, James. "Thai Army Forces Out Refugees." The Wall Street Journal. 28 December 2009.
External links
- Laotian and Hmong veterans and refugee families of the Lao Veterans of America, Inc.
- Center for Public Policy Analysis (CPPA) in Washington, D.C. Hmong human rights, religious persecution/ religious freedom violations and refugee issues
- Hmong-related web sites Archived 17 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine edited by Mark Pfeifer of the Hmong Cultural Center.
- Laos & Hmong Refugee Crisis & human rights violations against Hmong people in Southeast Asia, Centre for Public Policy Analysis, Washington, D.C.
- Publications list Archived 27 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center Archived 18 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- Hmong culture studies Archived 19 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine multimedia educational content
- Hmong history and culture articles by Hmong Australian anthropologist, Dr. Gary Yia Lee
- Hmong Contemporary Issues by Hmong French anthropologist and linguist, Dr. Kao-Ly Yang (English, French, and Hmong languages)
- Being Hmong Means Being Free Wisconsin Public Television
- Learn about Hmong People & Culture
- Hmong Culture