List of Plasmodium species infecting primates
The Plasmodium species infecting primates include the parasites causing malaria in humans.
Species infecting humans
Common infections
- Plasmodium falciparum (the cause of malignant tertian malaria)
- Plasmodium vivax (the most frequent cause of benign tertian malaria)
- Plasmodium ovale curtisi (another, less frequent, cause of benign tertian malaria)
- Plasmodium ovale wallikeri (another, less frequent, cause of benign tertian malaria)
- Plasmodium malariae (the cause of benign quartan malaria)
- Plasmodium knowlesi (the cause of severe quotidian malaria in Southeast Asia)
Rare cases
While infection of humans by other species is known, they are quite rare, in some instances, only a single case. In a number of the cases, the means of infection is unknown, and may be due to accident, i.e. infection by laboratory equipment or a bite by an animal. With the use of the polymerase chain reaction additional species have been and are still being identified that infect humans.
- Plasmodium cynomolgi (spp. cynomolgi, bastianellii)
- Plasmodium inui[1]
- Plasmodium schwetzi[2][3]
- Plasmodium semiovale[citation needed]
- Plasmodium simium[4]
(Plasmodium brasilianum and Plasmodium rhodiani which have been reported to infect humans, are likely synonymous with P. malariae)
One possible experimental infection has been reported with Plasmodium eylesi. Fever and low grade parasitemia were apparent at 15 days. The volunteer (Dr Bennett) had previously been infected by Plasmodium cynomolgi and the infection was not transferable to a gibbon (P. eylesi 's natural host) so this cannot be regarded as definitive evidence of its ability to infect humans. A second case has been reported that may have been a case of P. eylesi but the author was not certain of the infecting species.[5]
A possible infection with Plasmodium tenue has been reported.[6] This report described a case of malaria in a three-year-old black girl from Georgia, United States, who had never been outside the US. She suffered from both P. falciparum and P. vivax malaria and while forms similar to those described for P. tenue were found in her blood even the author was skeptical about the validity of the diagnosis.
Confusingly Plasmodium tenue was proposed in the same year (1914) for a species found in birds. The human species is now considered to be likely to have been a misdiagnosis and the bird species is described on the Plasmodium tenue page.
Former names
Taxonomy in parasitology until the advent of DNA based methods has always been a problem and revisions in this area are continuing. A number of synonyms have been given for the species infecting humans that are no longer recognised as valid.[7] Since perusal of the older literature may be confusing some currently defunct species names are listed here.
P. causiasium
P. golgi
P. immaculatum
P. laverani var. tertium
P. laverani var. quartum
P. malariae var. immaculatum
P. malariae var. incolor
P. malariae var. irregularis
P. malariae var. parva
P. malariae var. quartanae
P. malariae var. quotidianae
P. perniciosum
P. pleurodyniae
P. praecox
P. quartana
P. quotidianum
P. sedecimanae
P. tenue
P. undecimanae
P. vegesio-tertaniae
Plasmodium shortii and Plasmodium osmaniae are now considered to be junior synonyms of Plasmodium inui.
Notes
- Falciparum
Until recently the only known host of P. falciparum was humans but this species has also been described in gorillas (
A possible report of P. falciparum in a greater spot-nosed monkeys (
A species that clusters with P. falciparum and P. reichenowi has been identified in
Night monkeys (
Two additional species within the subgenus
- Malariae
Humans are currently considered to be the only host for P. malariae. However Rodhain and Dellaert in the 1940s showed with transmission studies that P. malariae was present in chimpanzees.[15][16] The presence of P. malaria in chimpanzees has been reported in Japan suggesting that this species may be able to act as a host.
The existence of multiple independent reports seem to suggest that the chimpanzee and possibly other species may act as a host to P. malaria at least occasionally.
- Vivax
P. vivax will infect chimpanzees. Infection tends to be low grade but may be persistent and remain as source of parasites for humans for some time. P. vivax is also known to infect
- Ovale
Like P. vivax, P. ovale has been shown to be transmittable to chimpanzees. P. ovale has an unusual distribution pattern being found in Africa, Myanmar the Philippines and New Guinea. In spite of its admittedly poor transmission to chimpanzees given its discontigous spread, it is suspected that P. ovale may in fact be a zoonosis with an as yet unidentified host. If this is actually the case, the host seems likely to be a primate. A report has been published suggesting that P. ovale may be a natural parasite of chimpanzees[22] but this needs confirmation. P. ovale has since been described from chimpanzees living in the wild.[13] This suggests that human infection with this species may as previously suspected be a zoonosis.
It has been recently shown that P. ovale is actually two genetically distinct species that coexist. These species are Plasmodium ovale curtisi and Plasmodium ovale wallikeri.[23] These two species separated between 1.0 and 3.5 million years ago.
- Knowlesi
Plasmodium knowlesi has a natural reservoir in the macaques of Southeast Asia, and was only in 1965 identified as being transmissible to humans.
- Other species
The remaining species capable of infecting humans all have other primate hosts.
Plasmodium taxonomy
- P. cynomolgi - P. cynomolgi bastianelli, P. cynomolgi ceylonensis and P. cynomolgi cynomolgi.
- P. inui - P. inui inui and P. inui shortii
- P. knowlesi - P. knowlesi edesoni and P. knowlesi knowlesi.
- P. ovale - P. ovale curtisi and P. ovale wallikeri
- P. vivax - P. vivax hibernans, P. vivax chesson and P. vivax multinucleatum.
Interrelatedness - The evolution of these species is still being worked out and the relationships given here should be regarded as tentative. This grouping, while originally made on morphological grounds, now has considerable support at the DNA level.
- P. brasilianum, P. inui and P. rodhaini are similar to P. malariae (quartan malaria group)
- P. cynomolgi, P. fragile, P. knowlesi, P. simium and P. schwetzi are similar to P. vivax
- P. fieldi and P. simiovale are similar to P. ovale
- P. falciparum is closely related to P. reichenowi.
Notes
- P. kochi has been described as a parasite of monkeys. This species is currently classified as Hepatocystis kochi. This may be subject to revision.
- P. brasilianum and P. rodhaini seem likely to be the same species as P. malariae.
- P. lemuris may actually belong to the genus Haemoproteus. Clarification of this point awaits DNA examination.
- P. shortii is currently (2007) regarded as a junior synonym of P. inui.
Subspecies
Many species of Plasmodium which infect primates have been divided into subspecies. Examples are listed below:
Subspecies infecting primates |
---|
*P. cynomolgi — P. cynomolgi bastianelli and P. cynomolgi ceylonensis.
|
Species infecting other hosts
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Most if not all Plasmodium species infect more than one host: the host records shown here should be regarded as incomplete.
- P. billbrayi - Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)
- P. billcollinsi - chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)
- P. bouillize - Cercopithecis campbelli
- P. brasilianum - Saimiri ustus.
- P. bucki - Lemur macaco macaco
- P. cercopitheci - Cercopithecis nictitans
- P. coatneyi - crab eating macque (Macaca irus), silvered leaf monkey (Presbytis cristatus)
- P. coulangesi - Lemur macaco macaco
- P. cynomolgi - bear macaque (Macaca sinica), orangutan (Pongo species), silver leaf monkey (Presbytis cristatus) and Hanuman langur (Presbytis entellus)
- P. eylesi - several Hylobates lar
- P. falciparum - Pan paniscus)
- P. fieldi - the crab eating macque (Macaca radiata) and the baboon (Papio doguera).
- P. foleyi - Lemur fulvus rufus
- P. fragile - Saimiri boliviensis
- P. inui - Formosan rock macaque (Macaca radiata)
- P. gaboni - chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)[13]
- P. georgesi - black crested mangabey (Cercocebus albigena)
- P. girardi - Lemur fulvus rufus, Lemur macaco macaco
- P. gonderi - black crested mangabey (Mandrillus leucophaeus)
- P. gora - gorillas (Gorilla gorilla)
- P. gorb - gorillas (Gorilla gorilla)
- P. hylobati - several Hylobates moloch
- P. inui - Saimiri boliviensis
- P. jefferyi - several gibbon (Hylobates) species
- P. joyeuxi - Cercopithecis callitricus
- P. knowlesi - crab eating macque (Macaca nemestrina) and Presbytis malalophus
- P. knowlesi edesoni - Macaca irus)
- P. lemuris - lemurs (Lemur collaris, Lemur macaco macaco)
- P. lomamiensis - Pan paniscus)
- P. malagasi - lemurs
- P. malariae - brown howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) chimpanzee[13]
- P. ovale - chimpanzees (Pan)[13]
- P. percygarnhami - Lemur macaco macaco
- P. petersi - black crested mangabey (Cercocebus albigena)
- P. pitheci - Pongo pygmaeus)
- P. reichenowi - chimpanzee (Pan) species[13] and gorilla (Gorilla) species
- P. rodhaini - chimpanzee (Pan) species and gorilla (Gorilla) species
- P. sandoshami - Cynocephalus variegatus)
- P. semnopitheci - northern plains gray langur (Semnopithecus entellus)
- P. schwetzi - chimpanzee (Pan) species and gorilla (Gorilla) species
- P. semiovale - toque macaque (Macaca sinica)
- P. shortii - bonnet macaque (Macaca sinica)
- P. silvaticum - orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)
- P. simium - several Brachyteles arachnoides)
- P. uilenbergi - Lemur fulvus fulvus
- P. vivax - orangutans (Pongo species), chimpanzees (Saguinus fuscicollis)
- P. youngei - white handed Hylobates lar)
It has been proposed that the species P. gora and P. gorb should be renamed P. adleri and P. blacklocki respectively.
Primate groups and Plasmodium species
New World monkeys of the family Cebidae: P. brasilianum and P. simium
Old World monkeys of the family
Gibbons of the family
Orangutans (Pongo): P. pitheci and P. silvaticum
Gorillas and chimpanzees: P. billcollini, P. billbrayii, P. falciparum, P. gabonensi, P. gora, P. gorb, P. reichenowi, P. rodhaini and P. schwetzi
Mosquitoes known to transmit human malaria listed by region
This section lacks an overview of its topic.(March 2014) |
This listing may be incomplete as the taxonomy of this genus is under revision.
North American
- Anopheles (Anopheles) freeborni
- Anopheles (Anopheles) quadrimaculatus
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimarus
Central American
- Anopheles (Anopheles) aztecus
- Anopheles (Anopheles) punctimacula
- Anopheles (Anopheles) pseudopunctipennis
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimanus
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albitarsis
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) aquasalis
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) argyritarsis
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) darlingi
South American
- Anopheles (Anopheles) pseudopunctipennis
- Anopheles (Anopheles) punctimacula
- Anopheles (Kerteszia) bellator
- Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii
- Anopheles (Kerteszia) neivai
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimanus
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albitarsis
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) aquasalis
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) argyritarsis
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) braziliensis
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) darlingi
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) nuneztovari
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) triannulatus
North Eurasian
- Anopheles (Anopheles) atroparvus
- Anopheles (Anopheles) messeae
- Anopheles (Anopheles) sacharovi
- Anopheles (Anopheles) sinensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) pattoni
Mediterranean
- Anopheles (Anopheles) atroparvus
- Anopheles (Anopheles) claviger
- Anopheles (Anopheles) labranchiae
- Anopheles (Anopheles) messeae
- Anopheles (Anopheles) sacharovi
- Anopheles (Cellia) Hispaniola
- Anopheles (Cellia) superpictus
Afro-Arabian
- Anopheles (Cellia) culicifacies
- Anopheles (Cellia) fluviatilis
- Anopheles (Cellia) Hispaniola
- Anopheles (Cellia) multicolor
- Anopheles (Cellia) pharoensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) sergentii
Afrotropical
- Anopheles (Cellia) arabiensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) funestus
- Anopheles (Cellia) gambiae
- Anopheles (Cellia) melas
- Anopheles (Cellia) merus
- Anopheles (Cellia) moucheti
- Anopheles (Cellia) nili
- Anopheles (Cellia) pharoensis
Indo-Iranian
- Anopheles (Anopheles) sacharovi
- Anopheles (Cellia) aconitus
- Anopheles (Cellia) annularis
- Anopheles (Cellia) culicifacies
- Anopheles (Cellia) fluviatilis
- Anopheles (Cellia) jeyporiensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) minimus
- Anopheles (Cellia) philippinensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) pulcherrimus
- Anopheles (Cellia) stephensi
- Anopheles (Cellia) sundaicus
- Anopheles (Cellia) superpictus
- Anopheles (Cellia) tessellatus
- Anopheles (Cellia) varuna
Indo-Chinese hills
- Anopheles (Anopheles) nigerrimus
- Anopheles (Cellia) annularis
- Anopheles (Cellia) culicifacies
- Anopheles (Cellia) dirus
- Anopheles (Cellia) fluviatilis
- Anopheles (Cellia) jeyporiensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) maculatus
- Anopheles (Cellia) minimus
Malaysian
- Anopheles (Anopheles) campestris
- Anopheles (Anopheles) conaldi
- Anopheles (Anopheles) donaldi
- Anopheles (Anopheles) letifer
- Anopheles (Anopheles) nigerrimus
- Anopheles (Anopheles) whartoni
- Anopheles (Cellia) acconitus
- Anopheles (Cellia) balabacensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) dirus
- Anopheles (Cellia) flavirostris
- Anopheles (Cellia) jeyporiensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) leucosphyrus
- Anopheles (Cellia) ludlowae
- Anopheles (Cellia) maculatus
- Anopheles (Cellia) mangyanu
- Anopheles (Cellia) minimus
- Anopheles (Cellia) philippiensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) subpictus
- Anopheles (Cellia) sundaicus
Chinese
- Anopheles (Anopheles) anthropophagus
- Anopheles (Anopheles) sinensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) balabacensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) jeyporiensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) pattoni
Australasian
- Anopheles (Anopheles) bacroftii
- Anopheles (Cellia) farauti type 1
- Anopheles (Cellia) farauti type 2
- Anopheles (Cellia) hilli
- Anopheles (Cellia) karwari
- Anopheles (Cellia) koliensis
- Anopheles (Cellia) punctulatus
- Anopheles (Cellia) subpictus
Primate mosquito vectors and associated Plasmodium species
This section lacks an overview of its topic.(March 2014) |
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimanus - P. fieldi, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albitarsis - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) aquasalis - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) arabensis - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) argyritarsi - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) argyropus - P. fieldi
- Anopheles (Anopheles) artemievi - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) atroparvus - P. fieldi, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) aztecus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) baimaii - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) balabacensis - P. fieldi, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) beklemishevi - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Kerteszia) bellator - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) benarrochi - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Kertezia) bifurcatus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) braziliensis - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Kertezia) claviger - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) coustani - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) culicifacies - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) darlingi - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) deaneorum - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) dirus - P. cynomolgi, P. fieldi, P. falciparum, P. inui, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) donaldi - P. fieldi
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dunhami - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) epiroticus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) farauti - P. coatneyi, P. vivax[26]
- Anopheles (Cellia) flavirostris - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) freeborni - P. fieldi, P. vivax[27]
- Anopheles (Cellia) funestus - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Cellia) fluviatilis - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) gambiae - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) hackeri - P. fieldi, P. knowlesi[28]
- Anopheles (Kerteszia) homunculus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) hyrcanus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) introlatus - P. cynomolgi, P. eylesi
- Anopheles (Anopheles) kleini - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) kochi - P. eylesi, P. fieldi
- Anopheles (Cellia) latens - P. knowlesi[29][30]
- Anopheles (Anopheles) lesteri - P. eylesi
- Anopheles (Anopheles) letifer - P. eylesi, P. fieldi
- Anopheles (Cellia) leucosphyrus - P. eylesi, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) maculatus - P. eylesi, P. fieldi, P. inui, P. vivax, P. youngei
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) marajoara - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) maculipennis - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) martinius - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) mediopunctatus - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) melas - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Cellia) merus - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Anopheles) messeae - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) minimus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) moucheti - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Cellia) nili - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) nuneztovari - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) oswaldoi - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) paludis - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Anopheles) peditaeniatus - P. fieldi
- Anopheles (Cellia) philippinensis - P. fieldi
- Anopheles (Anopheles) pseudopunctipennis - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) pulcherrimus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) pullus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) punctimacula - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) punctipennis - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) quadrimaculatus - P. fieldi, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) rangeli - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) macarthuri - P. eylesi
- Anopheles (Anopheles) roperi - P. eylesi
- Anopheles (Anopheles) sacharovi - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) sergentii - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) sinensis - P. eylesi, P. fieldi, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) stephensi - P. cynomogli, P. fieldi, P. inui, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) sundaicus - P. eylesi, P. vivax, P. youngei
- Anopheles (Cellia) superpictus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) tessellatus - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) triannulatus - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) trinkae - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) umbrosus - P. eylesi
- Anopheles (Cellia) vagus - P. eylesi, P. fieldi
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