Pan (genus)
Chimpanzees and bonobos[1] | |
---|---|
Members of the genus Pan: chimpanzee (left) and bonobo (right) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Primates |
Suborder: | Haplorhini |
Infraorder: | Simiiformes |
Family: | Hominidae |
Subfamily: | Homininae |
Tribe: | Hominini |
Subtribe: | Panina |
Genus: | Pan Oken, 1816 |
Type species | |
Simia troglodytes
, 1776 | |
Species | |
Distribution of Pan troglodytes (common chimpanzee) and Pan paniscus (bonobo, in red) | |
Synonyms | |
|
The genus Pan consists of two extant species: the
Chimpanzee and bonobo: comparison
The
The most obvious differences are that chimpanzees are somewhat larger, more aggressive and male-dominated, while the bonobos are more gracile, peaceful, and female-dominated. Their hair is typically black or brown. Males and females differ in size and appearance. Both chimpanzees and bonobos are some of the most social great apes, with social bonds occurring throughout large communities. Fruit is the most important component of a chimpanzee's diet; but they will also eat vegetation, bark, honey, insects and even other chimpanzees or monkeys. They can live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity.
Chimpanzees and bonobos are equally humanity's closest living relatives. They use a variety of sophisticated tools and construct elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. Their learning abilities have been extensively studied. There may even be distinctive cultures within populations. Field studies of Pan troglodytes were pioneered by primatologist Jane Goodall.
Names
The genus name Pan was first introduced by Lorenz Oken in 1816. While Oken did not give a rationale for his choice, it is generally thought to have been inspired by the name of the Greek god Pan.[7][8] An alternative Theranthropus was suggested by Brookes 1828 and Chimpansee by Voigt 1831. Troglodytes was not available, as it had been given as the name of a genus of wren in 1809, for "cave-dweller", reflecting the tendency of some wrens to forage in dark crevices. The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature adopted Pan as the only official name of the genus in 1895,[9] though the "cave-dweller" connection was able to be included, albeit at the species level (Pan troglodytes – the common chimpanzee) for one of the two species of Pan.
The first use of the name "chimpanze" is recorded in
The
The bonobo, in the past also referred to as the "pygmy chimpanzee", was given the species name of paniscus by Ernst Schwarz (1929), a Greek-style diminutive of the theonym Pan used by Cicero.[17]
Distribution and habitat
There are two species of the genus Pan, both previously called simply chimpanzees:
- Pan troglodytes, are found almost exclusively in the heavily forested regions of Central and West Africa. With at least four commonly accepted subspecies, their population and distribution is much more extensive than the bonobos, in the past also called 'pygmy chimpanzee'.
- Bonobos, Pan paniscus, are found only in Central Africa, south of the Congo River and north of the Kasai River (a tributary of the Congo),[18] in the humid forest of the Democratic Republic of Congoof Central Africa.
Common name | Scientific name and subspecies | Range | Size and ecology | IUCN status and estimated population |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bonobo | P. paniscus Schwarz, 1929 |
Central Africa |
Size: 70–83 cm (28–33 in) long[19] Habitat: Forest[20] Diet: Fruits and seeds, as well as leaves, stems, shoots, pith, bark, flowers, truffles, fungus, and honey[20] |
EN
|
Chimpanzee | P. troglodytes (Blumenbach, 1775) Four subspecies
|
Central and western Africa |
Size: 63–90 cm (25–35 in) long[21] Habitat: Forest and savanna[22] Diet: Fruit, leaves, stems, buds, bark, pith, seeds, and resins, as well as insects, small vertebrates, and eggs[23] |
EN
|
Evolutionary history
Evolutionary relationship
Phylogeny of superfamily Hominoidea[24]: Fig. 4 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
The genus Pan is part of the subfamily
Fossils
The chimpanzee[
Anatomy and physiology
The chimpanzee's arms are longer than its legs. The male common chimp stands up to 1.2 m (3.9 ft) high. Male adult wild chimps weigh between 40 and 60 kg[33][34][35] with females weighing between 27 and 50 kg.[34] When extended, the common chimp's long arms span one and a half times the body's height.[6] The bonobo is slightly shorter and thinner than the common chimpanzee, but has longer limbs. In trees, both species climb with their long, powerful arms; on the ground, chimpanzees usually knuckle-walk, or walk on all fours, clenching their fists and supporting themselves on the knuckles. Chimpanzees are better suited for walking than orangutans, because the chimp's feet have broader soles and shorter toes. The bonobo has proportionately longer upper limbs and walks upright more often than does the common chimpanzee. Both species can walk upright on two legs when carrying objects with their hands and arms.
The chimpanzee is tailless; its coat is dark; its face, fingers, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet are hairless. The exposed skin of the face, hands, and feet varies from pink to very dark in both species, but is generally lighter in younger individuals and darkens with maturity. A University of Chicago Medical Centre study has found significant genetic differences between chimpanzee populations.[36] A bony shelf over the eyes gives the forehead a receding appearance, and the nose is flat. Although the jaws protrude, a chimp's lips are thrust out only when it pouts.
The brain of a chimpanzee has been measured at a general range of 282–500 cm3.[37] The human brain, in contrast, is about three times larger, with a reported average volume of about 1330 cm3.[38]
Chimpanzees reach puberty between the age of eight and ten years.[39] A chimpanzee's testicles are unusually large for its body size, with a combined weight of about 4 oz (110 g) compared to a gorilla's 1 oz (28 g) or a human's 1.5 ounces (43 g). This relatively great size is generally attributed to sperm competition due to the polygynandrous nature of chimpanzee mating behaviour.[40][41]
Longevity
In the wild, chimpanzees live to their 30s,
Muscle strength
Chimpanzees[dubious ] are known for possessing great amount of muscle strength, especially in their arms. However, compared to humans the amount of strength reported in media and popular science is greatly exaggerated with numbers of four to eight times the muscle strength of a human. These numbers stem from two studies in 1923 and 1926 by a biologist named John Bauman.[45][46] These studies were refuted in 1943 and an adult male chimpanzee was found to pull about the same weight as an adult man.[47] Corrected for their smaller body sizes, chimpanzees were found to be stronger than humans but not anywhere near four to eight times. In the 1960s these tests were repeated and chimpanzees were found to have twice the strength of a human when it came to pulling weights. The reason for the higher strength seen in chimpanzees compared to humans are thought to come from longer skeletal muscle fibers that can generate twice the work output over a wider range of motion compared to skeletal muscle fibers in humans.
Behaviour
It is suspected that human observers can influence chimpanzee behaviour.[vague] For this reason researchers sometimes prefer camera traps and remote microphones rather than human observers.[48]
Chimpanzee vs. bonobo
Anatomical differences between the common chimpanzee and the
Contrary to what the scientific name (Pan
Chimpanzees
Social structure
Chimpanzees live in large multi-male and multi-female
Female chimpanzees also have a hierarchy, which is influenced by the position of a female individual within a group. In some chimpanzee communities, the young females may inherit high status from a high-ranking mother. Dominant females will also ally to dominate lower-ranking females: whereas males mainly seek dominant status for its associated mating privileges and sometimes violent domination of subordinates, females seek dominant status to acquire resources such as food, as high-ranking females often have first access to them. Both genders acquire dominant status to improve social standing within a group.
Community female acceptance is necessary for alpha male status; females must ensure that their group visits places that supply them with enough food. A group of dominant females will sometimes oust an alpha male which is not to their preference and back another male, in whom they see potential for leading the group as a successful alpha male.
The mating system within each community is polygynandrous, with each male and female possibly having multiple sexual partners.[56]
Intelligence
Chimpanzees make tools and use them to acquire foods and for social displays; they have sophisticated hunting strategies requiring cooperation, influence and rank; they are status conscious, manipulative and capable of deception; they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax, concepts of number and numerical sequence;[57] and they are capable of spontaneous planning for a future state or event.[58]
Tool use
In October 1960, Jane Goodall observed the use of tools among chimpanzees[dubious ]. Recent research indicates that chimpanzees' use of stone tools dates back at least 4,300 years (about 2,300 BC).[59] One example of chimpanzee tool usage behavior includes the use of a large stick as a tool to dig into termite mounds, and the subsequent use of a small stick altered into a tool that is used to "fish" the termites out of the mound.[60] Chimpanzees are also known to use smaller stones as hammers and a large one as an anvil in order to break open nuts.[61]
In the 1970s, reports of chimpanzees using rocks or sticks as weapons were anecdotal and controversial.[62] However, a 2007 study claimed to reveal the use of spears, which common chimpanzees in Senegal sharpen with their teeth and use to stab and pry Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees.[63][64]
Prior to the discovery of tool use by chimpanzees, humans were believed to be the only
Nest-building
Nest-building, sometimes considered to be a form of tool use, is seen when chimpanzees construct arboreal night nests by lacing together branches from one or more trees to build a safe, comfortable place to sleep; infants learn this process by watching their mothers. The nest provides a sort of mattress, which is supported by strong branches for a foundation, and then lined with softer leaves and twigs; the minimum diameter is 5 metres (16 ft) and may be located at a height of 3 to 45 metres (10 to 150 ft). Both day and night nests are built, and may be located in groups.[67] A study in 2014 found that the muhimbi tree is favoured for nest building by chimpanzees in Uganda due to its physical properties, such as bending strength, inter-node distance, and leaf surface area.[68]
Altruism and emotivity
Studies have shown chimpanzees engage in apparently altruistic behaviour within groups.[69][70] Some researchers have suggested that chimpanzees are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated group members,[71] but a more recent study of wild chimpanzees found that both male and female adults would adopt orphaned young of their group. Also, different groups sometimes share food, form coalitions, and cooperate in hunting and border patrolling.[72] Sometimes, chimpanzees have adopted young that come from unrelated groups. And in some rare cases, even male chimpanzees have been shown to take care of abandoned infant chimpanzees of an unrelated group, though in most cases they would kill the infant.[73]
According to a literature summary by James W. Harrod, evidence for
Communication between chimpanzees
Chimpanzees communicate in a manner that is similar to that of human nonverbal communication, using vocalizations, hand gestures, and facial expressions. There is some evidence that they can recreate human speech.[75] Research into the chimpanzee brain has revealed that when chimpanzees communicate, an area in the brain is activated which is in the same position as the language center called Broca's area in human brains.[76]
Aggression
Adult common chimpanzees, particularly males, can be very aggressive. They are highly territorial and are known to kill others of their species.[77]
Hunting
Chimpanzees also engage in targeted hunting of smaller primates, such as the red colobus[78] and bush babies.[79][80] Males who acquire the meat may share it with females to have sex or for grooming.[81]
Puzzle solving
In February 2013, a study found that chimpanzees solve puzzles for entertainment.[82]
Chimpanzees in human history
Chimpanzees, as well as other apes, had also been purported to have been known to ancient writers, but mainly as myths and legends on the edge of European and Near Eastern societal consciousness. Apes are mentioned variously by
The diary of Portuguese explorer
In the 20th century, a new age of scientific research into chimpanzee behaviour began. Before 1960, almost nothing was known about chimpanzee behaviour in their natural habitats. In July of that year,
The August 2008 issue of the American Journal of Primatology reported results of a year-long study of chimpanzees in Tanzania's Mahale Mountains National Park, which produced evidence of chimpanzees becoming sick from viral infectious diseases they had likely contracted from humans. Molecular, microscopic and epidemiological investigations demonstrated the chimpanzees living at Mahale Mountains National Park have been suffering from a respiratory disease that is likely caused by a variant of a human paramyxovirus.[84]
Conservation
The US Fish and Wildlife Service finalized a rule on June 12, 2015, creating very strict regulations, practically barring any activity with chimpanzees other than for scientific, preservation-oriented purposes.[85]
See also
Notes
- ^ At the onset of thunderstorms or sudden wind gusts chimpanzee males' hair bristles; they perform spectacular aggression displays, charging, waying back and forth, breaking off and brandishing branches. Such displays are performed more often toward the beginning of the rainy season... Rain dance is habitual at Tai Forest and Budongo and customary at Gombe, Mahale-M, Mahale-K and Kibale (Whiten et al 1999).[74]
References
- OCLC 62265494.
- ISBN 978-1-1186-5099-8.
- ISBN 9780128026526.
- PMID 28377592.
- ^ "Chimpanzees among 33 breeds selected for special protection". BBC. October 28, 2017. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
- ^ a b Shefferly, N. (2005). "Pan troglodytes". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved August 11, 2007.
- ISBN 978-1-4766-7950-1.
- ^ Beolens, B.; Watkins, M.; Grayson, M. (2009). The Eponym Dictionary of Mammals. JHU Press.
- ^ a b Tubbs, P. K. (1985). "Opinion 1368 The generic names Pan and Panthera (Mammalia, Carnivora): available as from Oken, 1816". Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature. 42: 365–370. BHL BioStor corrigendum in Bulletin of zoological nomenclature, 45: 304. (1988) Internet Archive BHL
- OED)
- ^ "chimpanzee". American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2011.
- OED)
- ^ Harper, Douglas. "chimpanzee". Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^ "chimp". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved June 6, 2009.
- ^ Blumenbach, J. F. (1776). De generis hvmani varietate nativa liber. Cvm figvris aeri incisis. Goettingae: Vandenhoeck. p. 36.
- ^ Schultes, F. W. (June 11, 2011). "Simia troglodytes".
- ^ Lewis, C. T.; Short, C. (1879). "A little Pan, a rural deity". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- ISBN 978-1-155-16265-2.
- ^ Kingdon, p. 97
- ^ .
- ^ Kingdon, p. 95
- ^ .
- ^ Shefferly, Nancy (2005). "Pan troglodytes". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on August 30, 2023. Retrieved August 24, 2023.
- PMID 21074627. Archived from the original(PDF) on May 7, 2012.
- S2CID 4367089.
- ^ Pagel, M. (June 4, 2007). "What is the latest theory of why humans lost their body hair? Why are we the only hairless primate?". Scientific American.
- ^ King, M.-C. (1973). Protein polymorphisms in chimpanzee and human evolution (Doctoral dissertation). University of California, Berkeley.
- ^ Minkel, J. R. (December 19, 2006). "Humans and chimps: close but not that close". Scientific American.
- ^ Wong, K. (September 1, 2014). "Tiny genetic differences between humans and other primates pervade the genome". Scientific American.
- ^ Gibbons, A. (June 13, 2012). "Bonobos join chimps as closest human relatives". Science/AAAS.
- S2CID 4423286.
- .
- PMID 3578495.
- ^ OCLC 244481732.
- ^ "Chimpanzee". nationalgeographic.com. National Geographic. May 10, 2011. Archived from the original on October 18, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2017.
- ^ "Gene study shows three distinct groups of chimpanzees". EurekAlert. April 20, 2007. Retrieved April 23, 2007.
- ISBN 9780231035187.Schoenemann, P. T. (1997). An MRI study of the relationship between human neuroanatomy and behavioral ability(PhD thesis). University of California, Berkeley.
- .
Modern human brain sizes vary widely, but average ~1330 cc (Dekaban 1978, Garby et al. 1993, Ho et al. 1980a, Pakkenberg & Voigt 1964)
- ISBN 978-0-19-023655-7.
- ^ "Why are rat testicles so big?". ratbehavior.org. 2003–2004. Retrieved September 1, 2009.
- ^ Maslin, M. (January 25, 2017). "Why did humans evolve big penises but small testicles?". theconversation.com. Retrieved December 22, 2018.
- PMID 27872299.
- .
- ^ Segal, K. (April 21, 2012). "Meet one of the oldest chimpanzees in captivity". CNN. Retrieved October 7, 2017.
- JSTOR 6455.
- JSTOR 1373587.
- JSTOR 1374806.
- ^ Gill, V. (June 23, 2017). "Watched chimps change their hunting habits". BBC News. Retrieved June 23, 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-674-11649-8.
- ^ Guernsey, P. (July 4, 2009). "What do chimps eat?". All About Wildlife. Archived from the original on November 18, 2019. Retrieved April 22, 2013.
- ^ Laird, C. (Spring 2004). "Social organization". Davidson College. Archived from the original on February 9, 2007. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
- ^ "Chimp behavior". Jane Goodall Institute. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved August 11, 2007.
- ISBN 978-1-59448-196-3.
- ^ Holland, J. S. (2011). "40 winks?". National Geographic. Vol. 220, no. 1.
- LiveScience.
- S2CID 17692801.
- ^ "Chimpanzee intelligence". Indiana University. February 23, 2000. Archived from the original on September 17, 2016. Retrieved March 24, 2008.
- S2CID 1669313.
- PMID 17360606.
- ^ Bijal, T. (September 6, 2004). "Chimps shown using not just a tool but a "tool kit"". National Geographic. Archived from the original on October 10, 2004.
- PMID 18359504.
- ISBN 9780120045037.
- ^ Fox, M. (February 22, 2007). "Hunting chimps may change view of human evolution". Yahoo News. Archived from the original on February 24, 2007. Retrieved February 22, 2007.
- ^ "ISU anthropologist's study is first to report chimps hunting with tools". Iowa State University News Service. February 22, 2007. Archived from the original on August 16, 2007. Retrieved August 11, 2007.
- LiveScience. Retrieved August 11, 2007.
- ^ "Tool use". Jane Goodall Institute. Archived from the original on May 20, 2007. Retrieved August 11, 2007.
- ISBN 978-0-674-11663-4.
- PMID 24740283.
- ^ "Human-like altruism shown in chimpanzees". Science Daily. June 25, 2007. Retrieved August 11, 2007.
- S2CID 11432622.
- S2CID 8440378.
- PMID 20111704.
- PMID 25084521.
- ^ a b Harrod, J. (May 10, 2007). "Appendices for chimpanzee spirituality: a concise synthesis of the literature" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 27, 2008. Retrieved January 28, 2011.
- ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Chimpanzee talking. YouTube. August 17, 2007. Retrieved August 28, 2015.
- ^ "Communication". Evolve. Season 1. Episode 7. September 14, 2008.
- TIME. Archived from the originalon February 19, 2009. Retrieved June 6, 2009.
- S2CID 19914188.
- S2CID 40430973.
- S2CID 16551874.
- ^ Gray, R. (February 24, 2013). "Chimps solve puzzles for the thrill of it, researchers find". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved February 24, 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-674-11649-8.
- ^ "Researchers find human virus in chimpanzees". Newswise. June 3, 2008.
- ^ "U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service finalizes rule listing all chimpanzees as Endangered under the Endangered Species Act". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
Certain activities involving chimpanzees will be prohibited without a permit, including import and export of the animals into and out of the United States, "take" (defined by the ESA as harm, harass, kill, injure, etc.) within the United States, and interstate and foreign commerce. Permits will be issued for these activities only for scientific purposes that benefit the species in the wild, or to enhance the propagation or survival of chimpanzees, including habitat restoration and research on chimpanzees in the wild that contributes to improved management and recovery.
Sources
- Kingdon, Jonathan (2015). The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals (Second ed.). ISBN 978-1-4729-2531-2.
Further reading
- Hawks, John. "How Strong Is a Chimpanzee?". Slate. February 25, 2009.
- Pickrell, John. (September 24, 2002). "Humans, Chimps Not as Closely Related as Thought?". National Geographic. Archived September 7, 2017.
- Zimmer, Carl. "On the Origin of Humans' Generosity". The New York Times. September 11, 2018.
External links
- The dictionary definition of chimpanzee at Wiktionary
- Media related to Pan at Wikimedia Commons
- Ingersoll, Ernest (1920). . Encyclopedia Americana.
- Lydekker, Richard (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).
- Stanford, Craig B. The Predatory Behavior and Ecology of Wild Chimpanzees Archived June 29, 2010, at the Wayback Machine university of Southern California. 2002(?)
- ChimpCARE.org
- View the panTro4 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.
- Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).