Lorentz group
Algebraic structure → Group theory Group theory |
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![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Hendrik_Antoon_Lorentz.jpg/300px-Hendrik_Antoon_Lorentz.jpg)
In
For example, the following laws, equations, and theories respect Lorentz symmetry:
- The kinematical laws of special relativity
- Maxwell's field equations in the theory of electromagnetism
- The Dirac equation in the theory of the electron
- The Standard Model of particle physics
The Lorentz group expresses the fundamental
Basic properties
The Lorentz group is a
Physics definition
Assume two
In matrix form these are all the linear transformations Λ such that:
These are then called
Mathematical definition
Mathematically, the Lorentz group may be described as the
on R4 (the vector space equipped with this quadratic form is sometimes written R1,3). This quadratic form is, when put on matrix form (see Classical orthogonal group), interpreted in physics as the metric tensor of Minkowski spacetime.
Mathematical properties
The Lorentz group is a six-
A recurrent representation of the action of the Lorentz group on Minkowski space uses biquaternions, which form a composition algebra. The isometry property of Lorentz transformations holds according to the composition property .
Another property of the Lorentz group is conformality or preservation of angles. Lorentz boosts act by
Note that this article refers to O(1, 3) as the "Lorentz group", SO(1, 3) as the "proper Lorentz group", and SO+(1, 3) as the "restricted Lorentz group". Many authors (especially in physics) use the name "Lorentz group" for SO(1, 3) (or sometimes even SO+(1, 3)) rather than O(1, 3). When reading such authors it is important to keep clear exactly which they are referring to.
Connected components
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Because it is a
The four connected components can be categorized by two transformation properties its elements have:
- Some elements are reversed under time-inverting Lorentz transformations, for example, a future-pointing timelike vectorwould be inverted to a past-pointing vector
- Some elements have orientation reversed by improper Lorentz transformations, for example, certain vierbein(tetrads)
Lorentz transformations that preserve the direction of time are called orthochronous. The subgroup of orthochronous transformations is often denoted O+(1, 3). Those that preserve orientation are called proper, and as linear transformations they have determinant +1. (The improper Lorentz transformations have determinant −1.) The subgroup of proper Lorentz transformations is denoted SO(1, 3).
The subgroup of all Lorentz transformations preserving both orientation and direction of time is called the proper, orthochronous Lorentz group or restricted Lorentz group, and is denoted by SO+(1, 3).[a]
The set of the four connected components can be given a group structure as the quotient group O(1, 3) / SO+(1, 3), which is isomorphic to the Klein four-group. Every element in O(1, 3) can be written as the semidirect product of a proper, orthochronous transformation and an element of the discrete group
- {1, P, T, PT}
where P and T are the
- P = diag(1, −1, −1, −1)
- T = diag(−1, 1, 1, 1).
Thus an arbitrary Lorentz transformation can be specified as a proper, orthochronous Lorentz transformation along with a further two bits of information, which pick out one of the four connected components. This pattern is typical of finite-dimensional Lie groups.
Restricted Lorentz group
The restricted Lorentz group SO+(1, 3) is the
The restricted Lorentz group is generated by ordinary
The set of all rotations forms a
Surfaces of transitivity
If a group G acts on a space V, then a surface S ⊂ V is a surface of transitivity if S is invariant under G (i.e., ∀g ∈ G, ∀s ∈ S: gs ∈ S) and for any two points s1, s2 ∈ S there is a g ∈ G such that gs1 = s2. By definition of the Lorentz group, it preserves the quadratic form
The surfaces of transitivity of the orthochronous Lorentz group O+(1, 3), Q(x) = const. acting on flat spacetime R1,3 are the following:[3]
- Q(x) > 0, x0 > 0 is the upper branch of a time-likevector.
- Q(x) > 0, x0 < 0 is the lower branch of this hyperboloid. Points on this sheet are the past time-likevectors.
- Q(x) = 0, x0 > 0 is the upper branch of the light cone, the future light cone.
- Q(x) = 0, x0 < 0 is the lower branch of the light cone, the past light cone.
- Q(x) < 0 is a hyperboloid of one sheet. Points on this sheet are space-likeseparated from the origin.
- The origin x0 = x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.
These surfaces are 3-dimensional, so the images are not faithful, but they are faithful for the corresponding facts about O+(1, 2). For the full Lorentz group, the surfaces of transitivity are only four since the transformation T takes an upper branch of a hyperboloid (cone) to a lower one and vice versa.
As symmetric spaces
An equivalent way to formulate the above surfaces of transitivity is as a
Representations of the Lorentz group
These observations constitute a good starting point for finding all
Homomorphisms and isomorphisms
Algebraic structure → Group theory Group theory |
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Several other groups are either homomorphic or isomorphic to the restricted Lorentz group SO+(1, 3). These homomorphisms play a key role in explaining various phenomena in physics.
- The Lorentz invariance of the Dirac equation and the covariance of spinors. In other words, the (restricted) Lorentz group is isomorphic to SL(2, C) / Z2
- The Weyl spinors, as well as to explain how spinors can have a mass.
- The spin group Spin(1, 3) is isomorphic to SL(2, C); it is used to explain spin and spinors in terms of the Clifford algebra, thus making it clear how to generalize the Lorentz group to general settings in Riemannian geometry, including theories of supergravity and string theory.
- The restricted Lorentz group is . This relationship is central to the classification of the subgroups of the Lorentz group according to an earlier classification scheme developed for the Möbius group.
Weyl representation
The Weyl representation or
One may define an action of SL(2, C) on Minkowski spacetime by writing a point of spacetime as a two-by-two Hermitian matrix in the form
in terms of Pauli matrices.
This presentation, the Weyl presentation, satisfies
Therefore, one has identified the space of Hermitian matrices (which is four-dimensional, as a real vector space) with Minkowski spacetime, in such a way that the determinant of a Hermitian matrix is the squared length of the corresponding vector in Minkowski spacetime. An element S ∈ SL(2, C) acts on the space of Hermitian matrices via
where is the Hermitian transpose of S. This action preserves the determinant and so SL(2, C) acts on Minkowski spacetime by (linear) isometries. The parity-inverted form of the above is
which transforms as
That this is the correct transformation follows by noting that
remains invariant under the above pair of transformations.
These maps are
The parity map swaps these two coverings. It corresponds to Hermitian conjugation being an automorphism of SL(2, C). These two distinct coverings corresponds to the two distinct
It is important to observe that this pair of coverings does not survive quantization; when quantized, this leads to the peculiar phenomenon of the chiral anomaly. The classical (i.e., non-quantized) symmetries of the Lorentz group are broken by quantization; this is the content of the Atiyah–Singer index theorem.
Notational conventions
In physics, it is conventional to denote a Lorentz transformation Λ ∈ SO+(1, 3) as , thus showing the matrix with spacetime indexes μ, ν = 0, 1, 2, 3. A four-vector can be created from the Pauli matrices in two different ways: as and as . The two forms are related by a
Given a Lorentz transformation , the double-covering of the orthochronous Lorentz group by S ∈ SL(2, C) given above can be written as
Dropping the this takes the form
The parity conjugate form is
Proof
That the above is the correct form for indexed notation is not immediately obvious, partly because, when working in indexed notation, it is quite easy to accidentally confuse a Lorentz transform with its inverse, or its transpose. This confusion arises due to the identity being difficult to recognize when written in indexed form. Lorentz transforms are not tensors under Lorentz transformations! Thus a direct proof of this identity is useful, for establishing its correctness. It can be demonstrated by starting with the identity
where so that the above are just the usual Pauli matrices, and is the matrix transpose, and is complex conjugation. The matrix is
Written as the four-vector, the relationship is
This transforms as
Taking one more transpose, one gets
Symplectic group
The
where
Other common notations are for this element; sometimes J is used, but this invites confusion with the idea of
Given a pair of Weyl spinors (two-component spinors)
the invariant bilinear form is conventionally written as
This form is invariant under the Lorentz group, so that for S ∈ SL(2, C) one has
This defines a kind of "scalar product" of spinors, and is commonly used to defined a Lorentz-invariant mass term in Lagrangians. There are several notable properties to be called out that are important to physics. One is that and so
The defining relation can be written as
which closely resembles the defining relation for the Lorentz group
where is the metric tensor for Minkowski space and of course, as before.
Covering groups
Since SL(2, C) is simply connected, it is the
Twofold coverings are characteristic of spin groups. Indeed, in addition to the double coverings
- Spin+(1, 3) = SL(2, C) → SO+(1, 3)
- Spin(3) = SU(2) → SO(3)
we have the double coverings
- Pin(1, 3) → O(1, 3)
- Spin(1, 3) → SO(1, 3)
- Spin+(1, 2) = SU(1, 1) → SO(1, 2)
These spinorial
Topology
The left and right groups in the double covering
- SU(2) → SO(3)
are
- SL(2, C) → SO+(1, 3).
But the homogeneous space SO+(1, 3) / SO(3) is
Conjugacy classes
Because the restricted Lorentz group SO+(1, 3) is isomorphic to the Möbius group PSL(2, C), its
- Elliptic transformations
- Hyperbolic transformations
- Loxodromic transformations
- Parabolic transformations
- The trivial identity transformation
In the article on
An example of each type is given in the subsections below, along with the effect of the
The Möbius transformations are the conformal transformations of the Riemann sphere (or celestial sphere). Then conjugating with an arbitrary element of SL(2, C) obtains the following examples of arbitrary elliptic, hyperbolic, loxodromic, and parabolic (restricted) Lorentz transformations, respectively. The effect on the flow lines of the corresponding one-parameter subgroups is to transform the pattern seen in the examples by some conformal transformation. For example, an elliptic Lorentz transformation can have any two distinct fixed points on the celestial sphere, but points still flow along circular arcs from one fixed point toward the other. The other cases are similar.
Elliptic
An elliptic element of SL(2, C) is
and has fixed points ξ = 0, ∞. Writing the action as X ↦ P1 X P1† and collecting terms, the spinor map converts this to the (restricted) Lorentz transformation
This transformation then represents a rotation about the z axis, exp(iθJz). The one-parameter subgroup it generates is obtained by taking θ to be a real variable, the rotation angle, instead of a constant.
The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (except for the identity) all share the same two fixed points, the North and South poles. The transformations move all other points around latitude circles so that this group yields a continuous counter-clockwise rotation about the z axis as θ increases. The angle doubling evident in the spinor map is a characteristic feature of spinorial double coverings.
Hyperbolic
A hyperbolic element of SL(2, C) is
and has fixed points ξ = 0, ∞. Under stereographic projection from the Riemann sphere to the Euclidean plane, the effect of this Möbius transformation is a dilation from the origin.
The spinor map converts this to the Lorentz transformation
This transformation represents a boost along the z axis with rapidity η. The one-parameter subgroup it generates is obtained by taking η to be a real variable, instead of a constant. The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (except for the identity) all share the same fixed points (the North and South poles), and they move all other points along longitudes away from the South pole and toward the North pole.
Loxodromic
A loxodromic element of SL(2, C) is
and has fixed points ξ = 0, ∞. The spinor map converts this to the Lorentz transformation
The one-parameter subgroup this generates is obtained by replacing η + iθ with any real multiple of this complex constant. (If η, θ vary independently, then a two-dimensional abelian subgroup is obtained, consisting of simultaneous rotations about the z axis and boosts along the z-axis; in contrast, the one-dimensional subgroup discussed here consists of those elements of this two-dimensional subgroup such that the rapidity of the boost and angle of the rotation have a fixed ratio.)
The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (excepting the identity) all share the same two fixed points (the North and South poles). They move all other points away from the South pole and toward the North pole (or vice versa), along a family of curves called loxodromes. Each loxodrome spirals infinitely often around each pole.
Parabolic
A parabolic element of SL(2, C) is
and has the single fixed point ξ = ∞ on the Riemann sphere. Under stereographic projection, it appears as an ordinary
The spinor map converts this to the matrix (representing a Lorentz transformation)
This generates a two-parameter abelian subgroup, which is obtained by considering α a complex variable rather than a constant. The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (except for the identity transformation) move points along a family of circles that are all tangent at the North pole to a certain great circle. All points other than the North pole itself move along these circles.
Parabolic Lorentz transformations are often called null rotations. Since these are likely to be the least familiar of the four types of nonidentity Lorentz transformations (elliptic, hyperbolic, loxodromic, parabolic), it is illustrated here how to determine the effect of an example of a parabolic Lorentz transformation on Minkowski spacetime.
The matrix given above yields the transformation
Now, without loss of generality, pick Im(α) = 0. Differentiating this transformation with respect to the now real group parameter α and evaluating at α = 0 produces the corresponding vector field (first order linear partial differential operator),
Apply this to a function f(t, x, y, z), and demand that it stays invariant; i.e., it is annihilated by this transformation. The solution of the resulting first order linear partial differential equation can be expressed in the form
where F is an arbitrary smooth function. The arguments of F give three rational invariants describing how points (events) move under this parabolic transformation, as they themselves do not move,
Choosing real values for the constants on the right hand sides yields three conditions, and thus specifies a curve in Minkowski spacetime. This curve is an orbit of the transformation.
The form of the rational invariants shows that these flowlines (orbits) have a simple description: suppressing the inessential coordinate y, each orbit is the intersection of a null plane, t = z + c2, with a hyperboloid, t2 − x2 − z2 = c3. The case c3 = 0 has the hyperboloid degenerate to a light cone with the orbits becoming parabolas lying in corresponding null planes.
A particular null line lying on the light cone is left invariant; this corresponds to the unique (double) fixed point on the Riemann sphere mentioned above. The other null lines through the origin are "swung around the cone" by the transformation. Following the motion of one such null line as α increases corresponds to following the motion of a point along one of the circular flow lines on the celestial sphere, as described above.
A choice Re(α) = 0 instead, produces similar orbits, now with the roles of x and y interchanged.
Parabolic transformations lead to the gauge symmetry of massless particles (such as photons) with helicity |h| ≥ 1. In the above explicit example, a massless particle moving in the z direction, so with 4-momentum P = (p, 0, 0, p), is not affected at all by the x-boost and y-rotation combination Kx − Jy defined below, in the "little group" of its motion. This is evident from the explicit transformation law discussed: like any light-like vector, P itself is now invariant; i.e., all traces or effects of α have disappeared. c1 = c2 = c3 = 0, in the special case discussed. (The other similar generator, Ky + Jx as well as it and Jz comprise altogether the little group of the light-like vector, isomorphic to E(2).)
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Appearance of the night sky
This isomorphism has the consequence that Möbius transformations of the Riemann sphere represent the way that Lorentz transformations change the appearance of the night sky, as seen by an observer who is maneuvering at relativistic velocities relative to the "fixed stars".
Suppose the "fixed stars" live in Minkowski spacetime and are modeled by points on the celestial sphere. Then a given point on the celestial sphere can be associated with ξ = u + iv, a complex number that corresponds to the point on the Riemann sphere, and can be identified with a null vector (a light-like vector) in Minkowski space
or, in the Weyl representation (the spinor map), the Hermitian matrix
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Lorentz_boost_on_the_celestial_sphere.gif/491px-Lorentz_boost_on_the_celestial_sphere.gif)
The set of real scalar multiples of this null vector, called a null line through the origin, represents a line of sight from an observer at a particular place and time (an arbitrary event we can identify with the origin of Minkowski spacetime) to various distant objects, such as stars. Then the points of the celestial sphere (equivalently, lines of sight) are identified with certain Hermitian matrices.
Projective geometry and different views of the 2-sphere
This picture emerges cleanly in the language of projective geometry. The (restricted) Lorentz group acts on the projective celestial sphere. This is the space of non-zero null vectors with under the given quotient for projective spaces: if for . This is referred to as the celestial sphere as this allows us to rescale the time coordinate to 1 after acting using a Lorentz transformation, ensuring the space-like part sits on the unit sphere.
From the Möbius side, SL(2, C) acts on complex projective space CP1, which can be shown to be diffeomorphic to the 2-sphere – this is sometimes referred to as the Riemann sphere. The quotient on projective space leads to a quotient on the group SL(2, C).
Finally, these two can be linked together by using the complex projective vector to construct a null-vector. If is a CP1 projective vector, it can be tensored with its Hermitian conjugate to produce a Hermitian matrix. From elsewhere in this article we know this space of matrices can be viewed as 4-vectors. The space of matrices coming from turning each projective vector in the Riemann sphere into a matrix is known as the Bloch sphere.
Lie algebra
Lie groups and Lie algebras |
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As with any Lie group, a useful way to study many aspects of the Lorentz group is via its Lie algebra. Since the Lorentz group SO(1, 3) is a matrix Lie group, its corresponding Lie algebra is a matrix Lie algebra, which may be computed as[5]
- .
If is the diagonal matrix with diagonal entries (1, −1, −1, −1), then the Lie algebra consists of matrices such that[6]
- .
Explicitly, consists of matrices of the form
- ,
where are arbitrary real numbers. This Lie algebra is six dimensional. The subalgebra of consisting of elements in which , , and equal to zero is isomorphic to .
The full Lorentz group O(1, 3), the proper Lorentz group SO(1, 3) and the proper orthochronous Lorentz group SO+(1, 3) (the component connected to the identity) all have the same Lie algebra, which is typically denoted .
Since the identity component of the Lorentz group is isomorphic to a finite quotient of SL(2, C) (see the section above on the connection of the Lorentz group to the Möbius group), the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group is isomorphic to the Lie algebra . As a complex Lie algebra is three dimensional, but is six dimensional when viewed as a real Lie algebra.
Commutation relations of the Lorentz algebra
The standard basis matrices can be indexed as where take values in {0, 1, 2, 3}. These arise from taking only one of to be one, and others zero, in turn. The components can be written as
- .
The commutation relations are
There are different possible choices of convention in use. In physics, it is common to include a factor of with the basis elements, which gives a factor of in the commutation relations.
Then generate boosts and generate rotations.
The structure constants for the Lorentz algebra can be read off from the commutation relations. Any set of basis elements which satisfy these relations form a representation of the Lorentz algebra.
Generators of boosts and rotations
The Lorentz group can be thought of as a subgroup of the
- Vector fields on R4 generating three rotations iJ,
- Vector fields on R4 generating three boosts iK,
The factor of i appears to ensure that the generators of rotations are Hermitian.
It may be helpful to briefly recall here how to obtain a one-parameter group from a
The corresponding initial value problem (consider a function of a scalar and solve with some initial conditions) is
The solution can be written
or
where we easily recognize the one-parameter matrix group of rotations exp(iλJz) about the z-axis.
Differentiating with respect to the group parameter λ and setting it λ = 0 in that result, we recover the standard matrix,
which corresponds to the vector field we started with. This illustrates how to pass between matrix and vector field representations of elements of the Lie algebra. The exponential map plays this special role not only for the Lorentz group but for Lie groups in general.
Reversing the procedure in the previous section, we see that the Möbius transformations that correspond to our six generators arise from exponentiating respectively η/2 (for the three boosts) or iθ/2 (for the three rotations) times the three Pauli matrices
Generators of the Möbius group
Another generating set arises via the isomorphism to the Möbius group. The following table lists the six generators, in which
- The first column gives a generator of the flow under the Möbius action (after stereographic projection from the Riemann sphere) as a real vector field on the Euclidean plane.
- The second column gives the corresponding one-parameter subgroup of Möbius transformations.
- The third column gives the corresponding one-parameter subgroup of Lorentz transformations (the image under our homomorphism of preceding one-parameter subgroup).
- The fourth column gives the corresponding generator of the flow under the Lorentz action as a real vector field on Minkowski spacetime.
Notice that the generators consist of
- Two parabolics (null rotations)
- One hyperbolic (boost in the direction)
- Three elliptics (rotations about the x, y, z axes, respectively)
Vector field on R2 | One-parameter subgroup of SL(2, C), representing Möbius transformations |
One-parameter subgroup of SO+(1, 3), representing Lorentz transformations |
Vector field on R1,3 |
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Parabolic | |||
Hyperbolic | |||
Elliptic | |||
Worked example: rotation about the y-axis
Start with
Exponentiate:
This element of SL(2, C) represents the one-parameter subgroup of (elliptic) Möbius transformations:
Next,
The corresponding vector field on C (thought of as the image of S2 under stereographic projection) is
Writing , this becomes the vector field on R2
Returning to our element of SL(2, C), writing out the action and collecting terms, we find that the image under the spinor map is the element of SO+(1, 3)
Differentiating with respect to θ at θ = 0, yields the corresponding vector field on R1,3,
This is evidently the generator of counterclockwise rotation about the y-axis.
Subgroups of the Lorentz group
The subalgebras of the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group can be enumerated, up to conjugacy, from which the
The one-dimensional subalgebras of course correspond to the four conjugacy classes of elements of the Lorentz group:
- generates a one-parameter subalgebra of parabolics SO(0, 1),
- generates a one-parameter subalgebra of boosts SO(1, 1),
- generates a one-parameter of rotations SO(2),
- (for any ) generates a one-parameter subalgebra of loxodromic transformations.
(Strictly speaking the last corresponds to infinitely many classes, since distinct give different classes.) The two-dimensional subalgebras are:
- generate an abelian subalgebra consisting entirely of parabolics,
- generate a nonabelian subalgebra isomorphic to the Lie algebra of the affine group Aff(1),
- generate an abelian subalgebra consisting of boosts, rotations, and loxodromics all sharing the same pair of fixed points.
The three-dimensional subalgebras use the Bianchi classification scheme:
- generate a Bianchi V subalgebra, isomorphic to the Lie algebra of Hom(2), the group of euclidean homotheties,
- generate a Bianchi VII0 subalgebra, isomorphic to the Lie algebra of E(2), the euclidean group,
- , where , generate a Bianchi VIIa subalgebra,
- generate a Bianchi VIII subalgebra, isomorphic to the Lie algebra of SL(2, R), the group of isometries of the hyperbolic plane,
- generate a Bianchi IX subalgebra, isomorphic to the Lie algebra of SO(3), the rotation group.
The Bianchi types refer to the classification of three-dimensional Lie algebras by the Italian mathematician Luigi Bianchi.
The four-dimensional subalgebras are all conjugate to
- generate a subalgebra isomorphic to the Lie algebra of Sim(2), the group of Euclidean similitudes.
The subalgebras form a lattice (see the figure), and each subalgebra generates by exponentiation a
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lorentz_group_subalgebra_lattice.png/300px-Lorentz_group_subalgebra_lattice.png)
As with any connected Lie group, the coset spaces of the closed subgroups of the restricted Lorentz group, or
- The group Sim(2) is the stabilizer of a null line; i.e., of a point on the Riemann sphere—so the homogeneous space SO+(1, 3) / Sim(2) is the Kleinian geometry that represents conformal geometryon the sphere S2.
- The (identity component of the) Euclidean group SE(2) is the stabilizer of a momentum spaceof a massless particle; geometrically, this Kleinian geometry represents the degenerate geometry of the light cone in Minkowski spacetime.
- The rotation group SO(3) is the stabilizer of a momentum space of a massive particle; geometrically, this space is none other than three-dimensional hyperbolic spaceH3.
Generalization to higher dimensions
The concept of the Lorentz group has a natural generalization to spacetime of any number of dimensions. Mathematically, the Lorentz group of (n + 1)-dimensional Minkowski space is the indefinite orthogonal group O(n, 1) of linear transformations of Rn+1 that preserves the quadratic form
The group O(1, n) preserves the quadratic form
O(1, n) is isomorphic to O(n, 1), and both presentations of the Lorentz group are in use in the theoretical physics community. The former is more common in literature related to gravity, while the latter is more common in particle physics literature.
A common notation for the vector space Rn+1, equipped with this choice of quadratic form, is R1,n.
Many of the properties of the Lorentz group in four dimensions (where n = 3) generalize straightforwardly to arbitrary n. For instance, the Lorentz group O(n, 1) has four connected components, and it acts by conformal transformations on the celestial (n − 1)-sphere in (n + 1)-dimensional Minkowski space. The identity component SO+(n, 1) is an SO(n)-bundle over hyperbolic n-space Hn.
The low-dimensional cases n = 1 and n = 2 are often useful as "toy models" for the physical case n = 3, while higher-dimensional Lorentz groups are used in physical theories such as string theory that posit the existence of hidden dimensions. The Lorentz group O(n, 1) is also the isometry group of n-dimensional de Sitter space dSn, which may be realized as the homogeneous space O(n, 1) / O(n − 1, 1). In particular O(4, 1) is the isometry group of the de Sitter universe dS4, a cosmological model.
See also
Notes
- ^ Note that some authors refer to SO(1, 3) or even O(1, 3) when they mean SO+(1, 3).
- ^ See the article Weyl equation for explicit derivations.
References
- ^ Weinberg 2002
- ^ Varićak V 1910 "Theory of Relativity and Lobachevskian geometry", Phys Z 1910 §3 'Lorentz-Einstein transformation as translation'. Engl.tr in Wikipedia
- ^ Gelfand, Minlos & Shapiro 1963
- ^ Wigner 1939
- ^ Hall 2015 Definition 3.18
- ^ Hall 2015 Proposition 3.25
Reading List
- Emil Artin (1957) Geometric Algebra, chapter III: Symplectic and Orthogonal Geometry via Internet Archive, covers orthogonal groups O(p, q)
- ISBN 978-0-07-009986-9. A canonical reference; see chapters 1–6 for representations of the Lorentz group.
- Frankel, Theodore (2004). The Geometry of Physics (2nd Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53927-2. An excellent resource for Lie theory, fiber bundles, spinorial coverings, and many other topics.
- OCLC 246650103. See Lecture 11 for the irreducible representations of SL(2, C).
- Minlos, R.A.; Shapiro, Z.Ya. (1963), Representations of the Rotation and Lorentz Groups and their Applications, New York: Pergamon Press
- Hall, Brian C. (2015), Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Representations: An Elementary Introduction, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 222 (2nd ed.), Springer, ISBN 978-3319134666
- Hall, G. S. (2004). Symmetries and Curvature Structure in General Relativity. Singapore: World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-02-1051-9. See Chapter 6 for the subalgebras of the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group.
- Hatcher, Allen (2002). Algebraic topology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79540-1. See also the "online version". Retrieved July 3, 2005. See Section 1.3 for a beautifully illustrated discussion of covering spaces. See Section 3D for the topology of rotation groups.
- ISBN 978-0-7167-0344-0. §41.3
- Naber, Gregory (1992). The Geometry of Minkowski Spacetime. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0486432359. (Dover reprint edition.) An excellent reference on Minkowski spacetime and the Lorentz group.
- ISBN 978-0-19-853446-4. See Chapter 3 for a superbly illustrated discussion of Möbius transformations.
- ISBN 978-0-521-55001-7
- S2CID 121773411