Merit (Buddhism)

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For the concept of merit in Hinduism, see Punya (Hinduism).

Merit, demerit and its retributions at the level of the individual. Based on Spiro.[1]

Merit (

Pali: puñña) is a concept considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics. It is a beneficial and protective force which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts, or thoughts. Merit-making is important to Buddhist practice: merit brings good and agreeable results, determines the quality of the next life and contributes to a person's growth towards enlightenment. In addition, merit is also shared with a deceased loved one, in order to help the deceased in their new existence. Despite modernization
, merit-making remains essential in traditional Buddhist countries and has had a significant impact on the rural economies in these countries.

Merit is connected with the notions of

ancestor worship, but in Buddhism it gained a more general ethical meaning. Merit is a force that results from good deeds done; it is capable of attracting good circumstances in a person's life, as well as improving the person's mind and inner well-being. Moreover, it affects the next lives to come, as well as the destination a person is reborn. The opposite of merit is demerit (papa), and it is believed that merit is able to weaken demerit. Indeed, merit has even been connected to the path to Nirvana
itself, but many scholars say that this refers only to some types of merit.

Merit can be gained in a number of ways, such as

transferring merit to one's deceased relatives, of which the origin is still a matter of scholarly debate. Merit has been that important in Buddhist societies, that kingship was often legitimated
through it, and still is.

In modern society, merit-making has been criticized as materialist, but merit-making is still ubiquitous in many societies. Examples of the impact of beliefs about merit-making can be seen in the Phu Mi Bun rebellions which took place in the last centuries, as well as in the revival of certain forms of merit-making, such as the much discussed merit release.

Definition

Translations of
Merit
Rōmaji: kudoku)
Laoບຸນ (bun)
Tibetan
བསོད་ནམས
(bsod nams)
Thaiบุญ [būn]
(RTGS: bun)
Vietnamesecông đức
Glossary of Buddhism

Puñña literally translates as 'merit, meritorious action, virtue'.

a Christian term, has in the latter part of the twentieth century gradually been used as a translation of the Buddhist term puṇya or puñña.[6] The Buddhist term has, however, more of an impermanent character than the English translation implies,[7] and the Buddhist term does not imply a sense of deserving.[8][9]

Before the arising of Buddhism, merit was commonly used in the context of

Sanskrit: pitṛ, pitara).[10][11][12] Later, in the period of the Upanishads, a concept of rebirth was established and it was believed that life in heaven was determined by the merit accumulated in previous lives,[13][11][12] but the focus on the pitṛ did not really change.[10] In Buddhism, the idea of an eternal heaven was rejected, but it was believed that merit could help achieve a rebirth in a temporary heaven.[11] Merit was no longer merely a product of ritual, but was invested with an ethical meaning and role.[14][15]

In the

Sanskrit: Tripitaka; the Buddhist scriptures), the importance of merit is often stressed. Merit is generally considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics, in nearly all Buddhist traditions.[5][16][17] Merit-making is very important to Buddhist practice in Buddhist societies.[18][19][20]

Merit is a "beneficial and protective force which extends over a long period of time" (B.J. Terwiel)—and is the effect of good deeds (

Pali: kamma-sarikkhatā) or "automatic cosmic reaction" (Brokaw) is a common idea found in Buddhist texts and Buddhist societies,[19][26] and explains why people are different and lead different lives in many ways.[18][27] Karma is self-regulatory and natural: it operates without divine intervention and human intention is fundamental to it.[8][6][28] Internally, merit makes the mind happy and virtuous.[29][30][31] Externally, present good circumstances, such as a long life, health and wealth, as well as the character and abilities someone is born with, arise from merits done in the past and vice versa, with demerits.[21][32][33] The merits and demerits a person has done may take a while to bear fruit.[34] Merit or demerit may cause a good or bad future respectively, including in the next lives to come.[6][32] A bad destination after rebirth may be caused by demerit, but merely a lack of merit may also lead a person to be born in an unhappy destination.[35] When someone is reborn in a happy destination, however, one can only stay there as long as merits last.[36] Thus, it is stated in the Tipiṭaka that people cannot take anything with them when they die, except for whatever merit and demerit they have done, which will affect their future.[37][38][39] Merit can be accumulated in different quantities, and stored up, but also has an impermanent character: it can run out.[22][40][41] Summarizing from the Buddhist text Milinda Pañhā, some scholars conclude that merit is inherently stronger than demerit.[42][43] Moreover, many merits together have the power to prevent demerits from having an effect, by pushing them "to the back of the queue" (Richard Gombrich), though demerits can never be undone.[44][45][46]

All these benefits of merit (

Sanskrit: ānuśaṁsa), whether internal or external, are the aim in merit-making, and are often subject of Dharma teachings and texts.[47][48] Thus, merit is the foundation of heavenly bliss in the future,[2] and in some countries merit was also considered to contribute to the good fortune of the country.[49][50] Because merit is understood to have these many beneficial effects, it is sometimes compared with cool water, which is poured or which is bathed in. This symbol is used in merit transfer ceremonies, for example.[51][52]

Discussion in traditional texts

General

Merit is not only a concept, but also a way of living.

Pāli canon identifies three bases of merit (puññakiriyā-vatthu),[2][38][39] in order of difficulty:[54][note 1]

  • giving (dāna-maya)
  • virtue (sīla-maya)
  • mental development (bhāvanā-maya)

In Buddhist texts and practice, giving is considered the easiest of the three bases of merit.

Pali: sampatti)—happiness as a human being, happiness in heaven, and happiness in Nirvana.[62] When people die, what world they will be reborn into depends on how intense they practice these three bases of merit. It is, however, only mental development that can take someone to the highest heavenly worlds, or to Nirvana.[63]

Monk on almsround
Giving helps to overcome selfishness and stills the mind; it prepares the mind for the practice of virtue.[17]

lay devotees
can make merit by performing ten deeds. Seven items are then added to the previous three:

  • Giving (Dāna-maya)
  • Virtue (Sīla-maya)
  • Mental development (Bhāvanā-maya)
  • Honoring others (Apacāyana-maya)
  • Offering service (Veyyāvaca-maya)
  • Dedicating (or transferring) merit to others (Pāli:Pattidāna-maya; Sanskrit: puṇyapariṇāmanā)
  • Rejoicing in others' merit (Pattānumodanā-maya)
  • Listening to Buddha's Teachings (Dhammassavana-maya)
  • Instructing others in the Buddha's Teachings (Dhammadesanā-maya)
  • Straightening one's own views in accordance with the Buddha's Teachings (Diṭṭhujukamma)[2][64][66]

These ten, the Commentator

Standard Tibetan: rdzas). These are considered an addition to the traditional list and can help protect against calamities or other negative events caused by bad karma.[16][67]

A number of scholars have criticized the concepts of merit and karma as amoral, egoist and calculative, citing its quantitative nature and emphasis on personal benefits in observing morality.

Pali: brahamavihāra).[73]

Monks receiving alms
Merit is a "beneficial and protective force which extends over a long period of time" (Terwiel)—and is the effect of good deeds.[21]

Accumulation and fruition

In post-canonical and vernacular Pāli literature, such as the

Vimānavatthu. Not only is the quality of people's next rebirth affected by their merits, but also the circumstances in which they are reborn; not only in the next life, but also in adjacent lives after that. Wealth, lifespan, and position are all contingent on merit.[32][33]

In Buddhist texts further details are given in what way and to what extent a meritorious deed will bring results: this depends on the spiritual quality of the recipient, the spiritual attitude of the giver, the manner in which one gives and the object given.

Pali: puññassa kovidā).[89]

Puñña, kusala and Nirvana

See also: Nirvana (Buddhism)

A teaching that exists in both Mahāyāna sūtras and Theravādin suttas is the teaching on the Ten Wholesome Ways of Action (

evil destinies
". These ten wholesome ways are:

  • In giving up the taking of life, the practitioner will accomplish freedom from vexations;
  • In giving up stealing, the practitioner will find security in life, economically, socially and spiritually;
  • In giving up wrongful (sexual) conduct, the practitioner will find inner peace and peace in the family life;
  • In giving up lying, the practitioner will attain purity of speech and mind;
  • In giving up slander, the practitioner will be protected socially and spiritually;
  • In giving up harsh language, the practitioner's words will be more effective;
  • In giving up frivolous speech, the practitioner will become wise and dignified;
  • In giving up lust, the practitioner finds freedom in life through contentment and simplicity;
  • In giving up hatred, the practitioner will develop kindness and gentleness;
  • In giving up wrong views, the practitioner will not falter in the good and spiritual path.[90][91]

These ten actions are described as akusala ('unwholesome';

defilements), whereas the kusalamūla are roots connected with good qualities of the mind. Both of them are called roots because they are qualities that can be cultivated and grown in the mind.[94][95]

Puñña and pāpa are close in meaning to kusala and akusala. Both pairs are used for distinguishing between ethically right and wrong. However, even though the negatives akusala and pāpa have almost the same meaning, there are some differences between the positives, kusala and puñña. According to

Phra Payutto believes that merit and kusala are both used to describe the 'cleanliness of the mind' (RTGS: khwam sa-at mot chot). But whereas merit aims for the 'beautiful and praiseworthy' (RTGS: suai-ngam na chuenchom) aspect of such cleanliness, with worldly benefits such as wealth, praise and happiness; kusala aims for the 'purity' (RTGS: borisut) aspect of cleanliness, with enlightenment as its benefit. Phra Payutto does add that both need to be accumulated on the Buddhist path. In making this comparison, he says this only holds for worldly merit, not for transcendental merit. Collins equates transcendental merit with kusala.[105][106] In the earlier Pāli texts, kusala was much more commonly used than puñña, puñña mostly being used in the context of the practice of giving.[107]

In a widely quoted theory, Melford Spiro and Winston King have distinguished two forms of Buddhism found in traditional Buddhist societies, "kammatic Buddhism" focused on activities such as merit-making, and "nibbanic Buddhism" which focuses on the liberation from suffering and rebirth.[108] In this theory, called the "transcendency thesis" (Keown), Buddhism has two quite separate aims, which are pursued by separate groups, that is, laypeople (kammatic) and monks (nibbanic). This view has, however, been downplayed or criticized by many other scholars, who believe that kammatic practices are in many ways connected to nibbanic practices, and the aims of monks and laypeople cannot be that easily separated.[109][110][111]

This transcendency thesis has also been applied to scriptural interpretation. When discussing the path to the attainment of Nirvana, in some passages in the Tipiṭaka merit is rejected. For example, in the Padhāna Sutta, the

Pali: "anumattenāpi puññena attho mayhaṃ na vijjati"). Some scholars, supporting the transcendency thesis, have interpreted this to mean that merit can only lead to happiness and progress within Saṃsāra, but does not lead to Nirvana, and must in fact be discarded before attaining Nirvana.[112][113][114] Marasinghe believes, however, that the word merit in this passage refers to merit in the pre-Buddhist Brahmanical sense, connected with rituals and sacrifice, and the lay life.[115] Another example often quoted in this context is the simile of the raft, which states that both dhamma and adhamma should be let go of in order to attain liberation. Whereas the term adhamma in the text clearly refers to evil views, the meaning of dhamma is subject to different interpretations. Considering that no other similar passage can be found in the Tipiṭaka, Keown believes that only this passage is not enough to base the transcendency thesis on.[116]

In the Pāli Canon, an

enlightened person is said to be neutral in terms of karma, that is, the person no longer generates karma, merit, or demerit.[5][117][118] Some scholars have interpreted this to mean that an enlightened person attains a state where distinctions between good and evil no longer exist. Other scholars have criticized this as making little sense, considering how the Buddha would normally emphasize ethics. The fact that an enlightened person is neutral in terms of karma, does not mean he is ethically neutral.[119][120] Indeed, the Buddha is quoted in the Tipiṭaka as saying he is foremost in 'higher morality' (adhisīla).[121] Keown attempts to overcome this problem by proposing that enlightened people are beyond the accumulative experience of good deeds (merit, puñña), since they are already perfected. They therefore do not need to accumulate goodness and the resulting happiness anymore. They no longer need to strive for a happy rebirth in the next life, because they have gone beyond rebirth. Their enlightenment is, however, an ethical perfection as well, though this is solely described as kusala, not as puñña.[122][123][124]

Field of merit

Sanskrit: puṇyakṣetra).[129][130][131] The difference with the Brahmanical tradition was, according to Marasinghe, that Buddhism did recognize other ways of generating merit apart from offerings to the monk, whereas the Brahmanical yajña only emphasized offerings to the Brahmin priest. That is not to say that such offerings were not important in early Buddhism: giving to the Sangha was the first Buddhist activity which allowed for community participation, and preceded the first rituals in Buddhism.[126]

The main concept of the field of merit is that good deeds done towards some recipients accrue more merit than good deeds to other recipients. This is compared with a seed planted in fertile ground which reaps more and better fruits than in infertile ground.

Pali: pāṭipuggalikā dakkhiṇā) or deeds done with favoritism.[77][66][140] Indeed, saṅghadāna yields even more fruits than deeds of merit to the person of the Buddha himself.[78][141]

Practice in Buddhist societies

Thus the Buddhist's view of his present activities has a wider basis, they being but one group of incidents in an indefinitely prolonged past, present and future series. They are, as has been said, no mere train of witnesses for or against him, but a stage in a cumulative force of tremendous power. He and his works stand in a mutual relation, somewhat like that of child to parent in the case of past works, of parent to child in the case of future works. Now no normal mother is indifferent as to whether or how she is carrying out her creative potency. Nor can any normal Buddhist not care whether his acts, wrought up hourly in their effect into his present and future character, are making a happy or a miserable successor. And so, without any definite belief as to how, or in what realm of the universe he will re-arise as that successor to his present self, the pious Buddhist, no less than his pious brethren of other creeds, goes on giving money and effort, time and thought to good works, cheerfully believing that nothing of it can possibly forgo its effect, but that it is all a piling up of merit or creative potency, to result, somewhere, somewhere, somehow, in future happiness—happiness which, though he be altruistic the while, is yet more a future asset of his, than of some one in whom he naturally is less interested than in his present self. He believes that, because of what he is now doing, some one now in process of mental creation by him, and to all intents and purposes his future " self," will one day taste less or more of life's trials. To that embryonic character he is inextricably bound ever making or marring it, and for it he is therefore and thus far responsible.

C. A. F. Rhys Davids, A Study of the Buddhist Norm[142]

Merit-making

The ten bases of merit are very popular in Buddhist countries.

symbiotic relationship between laypeople and Sangha,[77][66][153] and the Sangha is obligated to be accessible to laypeople, for them to make merit.[154]

Giving can be done in several ways. Some laypeople offer food, others offer robes and supplies, and others fund ceremonies, build monasteries or persuade a relative to ordain as a monk. Young people often temporary ordain as monks, because they believe this will not only yield fruits of merit for themselves, but also for their parents who have allowed them to ordain.

Vessantara Jātaka, a story of a previous life of the Buddha which is held sacred.[174]

People were so intent on merit-making and giving, that in some societies, people would even offer themselves and their family to a Buddhist temple, as one high-ranking minister did in the ancient Pagan Kingdom (ninth until fourteenth century Burma).[175][176] On a similar note, in Sri Lanka, kings and commoners would offer slaves to the temple, and then donate money to pay for their freedom, that way accruing two merits at once. Even more symbolically, kings would sometimes offer their kingdom to a temple, which, returned the gift immediately, together with some Dhamma teaching. Also in Sri Lanka, King Mahakuli Mahatissa disguised himself as a peasant and started to earn his living working on a paddy field, so he would be able to gain more merit by working himself to obtain resources to give to Buddhist monks.[177] In some cases, merit-making was even continued after a person's death: in ancient Thai tradition, it was considered meritorious for people to dedicate their corpses to feed the wild animals after death.[178]

Rituals

See also:
Buddhist culture and Buddhist devotion § Festivals and observance days

Many devout Buddhists observe regular

Rama IV, however, the festival has become less popular.[183][184] Many countries also celebrate the yearly Kaṭhina, when they offer robes, money and other requisites to the Sangha as a way to make merit.[185][186] In Burma, the two yearly Light Festivals are typically occasions to make merit, as gifts are given to elders, and robes are sewn for the Sangha.[187] In South Korea, a Buddha Day (Korean: seog-ga-tan-sin-il) is held, on which Buddhists pray and offer alms.[188] Other kinds of occasions of merit-making are also upheld. A special form of merit-making less frequently engaged in is going on pilgrimage, which is mostly common in Tibet and Japan. This practice is highly regarded and considered very meritorious.[189][190]

Recording

In several Buddhist countries, it has been common to record merits done. In China, it was common for many centuries to keep record of someone's meritorious deeds in 'merit ledgers' (

terminal care.[202][203] or as part of the activities of lay merit-making associations.[204]

Merit and wealth

The association of wealth with merits done has deeply affected many Buddhist countries. The relation between giving and wealth is ubiquitous in vernacular Pāli literature, and many stories of exemplary donors exist, such as the stories of Anāthapiṇḍika and Jōtika.[205] In Buddhism, by emphasizing the usage of wealth for generosity, accumulating wealth for giving purposes thus became a spiritual practice.[15] But using wealth in unrighteous ways, or hoarding it instead of sharing and giving it, is condemned extensively. Taṇhā (thirst, desire, greed, craving) is what keeps a person wandering in Saṃsāra (the cycle of rebirth), instead of becoming liberated. It is the attachment to wealth that is an obstacle on the spiritual path, not wealth per se. Stories illustrating these themes in vernacular Buddhist literature, have profoundly influenced popular culture in Buddhist countries.[122][206][205] Several scholars have described merit as a sort of spiritual currency or bookkeeping system.[44][197][207] Though objections have been made against this metaphor,[203][208] it is not new. Similar comparisons have been made in the Milinda Pañhā, and in seventeenth-century China. Moreover, Schopen has shown that Buddhism has had strong connections with the mercantile class, and Rotman thinks that a mercantile ethos may have informed Buddhist texts such as the Divyāvadāna.[102][197] Gombrich objects to calling merit-making "dry metaphysical mercantilism", but he does speculate on a historical relation between the concept of merit and the monetization of ancient India's economy.[209]

Transfer

Main article: Transfer of merit
Thai politician participates in ceremony of transferring merit
Sometimes transferring merit is symbolized by pouring water into a vessel.[51][210]

Description and origins

Two practices mentioned in the list of meritorious acts have been studied quite extensively by scholars: dedicating (or transferring) merit to others, and rejoicing in others' merits.[211] Transferring merit is a widespread custom in all Buddhist countries, Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna and Theravāda.[212][213][214] In the Pāli tradition, the word pattidāna is used, meaning 'giving of the acquired'.[215] And in the Sanskrit tradition, the word pariṇāmanā is used for transferring merit, meaning 'bending round or towards, transfer, dedication'.[216] Of these translations, 'transfer of merit' has become commonplace, though objected to by some scholars.[217][218]

Buddhist traditions provide detailed descriptions of how this transfer proceeds. Transferring merit to another person, usually deceased relatives, is simply done by a mental wish. Despite the word transfer, the merit of the giver is in no way decreased during such an act, just like a candle is used to light another candle, but the light does not diminish.

Pure Land.[16] Another way of transferring merit, apart from helping the deceased, is to dedicate it to the devas (deities), since it is believed that these are not able to make merits themselves. In this way it is believed their favor can be obtained.[44][221][223] Finally, many Buddhists transfer merits to resolve a bond of revenge that may exist between people, as it is believed that someone else's vengefulness may create harm in one's life.[196][224]

Initially in the Western study of Buddhism, some scholars believed that the transfer of merit was a uniquely Mahāyāna practice and that it was developed only at a late period after the historical Buddha. For example, Heinz Bechert dated the Buddhist doctrine of transfer of merit in its fully developed form to the period between the fifth and seventh centuries CE.[225] Scholars perceived that it was discordant with early Buddhist understandings of karma,[213][225][226] and noticed that in the Kathāvatthu the idea is partly refuted by Theravādins.[227][228] Other scholars have pointed out that the doctrine of the transfer of merit can be found early in the Theravāda tradition.[214][229][230] Then there also scholars who propose that, although the transfer of merit did not exist as such in early Buddhism, early doctrines did form a basis for it, the transfer of merit being an "inherent consequence" (Bechert) of these early doctrines.[231][232][233]

The idea that a certain power could be transferred from one to another was known before the arising of Buddhism. In religious texts such as the

Sanskrit: tapas). Apart from these transfers of power, a second origin is found in Brahamanical ancestor worship.[74] In the period preceding the arising of Buddhism, it was believed that after a person's death he had to be transformed from a wandering preta to reach the blissful world of the pitṛs. This was done through the complex Śrāddha ceremonies, which would secure the destiny of the deceased as a pitṛ. In Buddhism, however, ancestor worship was discontinued, as it was believed that the dead would not reach heavenly bliss through rituals or worship, but only through the law of karma. Nevertheless, the practice of transfer of merit arose by using the ethical and psychological principles of karma and merit, and connect these with the sense of responsibility towards one's parents. This sense of responsibility was typical for pre-Buddhist practices of ancestor worship. As for the veneration of dead ancestors, this was replaced by veneration of the Sangha.[234][235]

Application in the spreading of Buddhism

Sree Padma and Anthony Barber note that merit transfer was well-established and a very integral part of Buddhist practice in the

Sanskrit: saptāṇgapūjā),[244][245][246][note 6] and there is almost no ceremony without some form of merit transfer.[23][248] Thus, merit transfer has developed to become a standard element in the basic liturgy of all main schools of Buddhism. Indeed, the transfer of merits has grown that important in Buddhism, that it has become a major way for Buddhism to sustain itself.[16] In Japan, some temples are even called ekōdera, which means a temple for merit transfer.[249]

Kingship

See also: Buddhist kingship
Pāli works as an important patron supporting the Sangha.[250]

In South and South-East Asia, merit-making was not only a practice for the mass, but was also practiced by the higher echelons of society. Kingship and merit-making went together.

Sanskrit: Aśoka) is featured as an important patron supporting the Sangha.[250]

Because of these traditions, kings have had an important role in maintaining the Sangha, and publicly performed grand acts of merit, as is testified by

epithets and royal language were established accordingly.[175][257][258] In short, kingship in traditional Buddhist societies was connected with the Sangha as a field of merit: the king assumed an exemplary role as a donor to the Sangha, and the Sangha legitimated the king as a leader of the state. Both facilitated one another, and both needed each other.[259] In times of famine or other hardship, it was traditionally believed that the king was failing, and the king would typically perform meritorious activities on a grand scale.[197][260][261] In this way the king would be able to improve the kingdom's conditions, through his "overflow karma" (Walters).[262] A similar role was played by queens.[263]

In the last seven centuries in Thailand, the Vessantara Jātaka has played a significant role in legitimating kingship in Thailand, through a yearly festival known as the 'Preaching of the Great Life' (

pāramīs (doing good deeds, developing good habits to become a Buddha) were greatly emphasized in this festival, through the story about Prince Vessantara's generosity. During the reform period of Rama IV, as Thai Buddhism was being modernized, the festival was dismissed as not reflecting true Buddhism. Its popularity has greatly diminished ever since. Nevertheless, the use of merit-making by the Thai monarchy and government, to solidify their position and create unity in society, has continued until the late twentieth century.[264]

In modern society

See also: Buddhist modernism

19th–early 20th century

Buddhists are not in agreement with regard to the interpretation, role, and importance of merit. The role of merit-making in Buddhism has been discussed throughout Buddhist history, but much more so in the last centuries. In the nineteenth century, during the rise of Buddhist modernism and the Communist regimes, Buddhists in South and Southeast Asia became more critical about merit-making when it became associated with magical practices, privileging, ritualism and waste of resources.[265][266][267][note 7] In pre-modern Thailand, a great deal of the funds of temples were derived from the profits of land that were offered to temples by royalty and nobility. During the period of religious reform and administrative centralization in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, however, Thai temples were no longer supported in this manner and had to find other ways to maintain themselves.[159]

At the beginning of the twentieth century, perspectives of merit-making had changed again, as merit-making was being associated with capitalism and consumerism, which had been rising in South and Southeast Asia.[270][271] Furthermore, in some Buddhist countries, such as Thailand, there is a tendency among teachers and practitioners to dismiss and even revile merit-making in favor of teachings about detachment and attaining Nirvana, for which L. S. Cousins has coined the term "ultimatism".[272][273][274]

From 1960s onward

Studies done in the 1960s and 1970s in Thailand, Sri Lanka and Burma showed that a great deal of time, effort and money was invested by people in merit-making, e.g. Spiro described Burma's rural economy as "geared to the overriding goal of the accumulation of wealth as a means of acquiring merit". In some studies done in rural Burma, up to thirty percent of people's income was spent on merit-making.[275] In 2014, when Burma ranked highest on the World Giving Index (tied with the United States, and followed by many other Buddhist countries), scholars attributed this to the Burmese habit of merit-making.[18][276] Studies done in Thailand, however, showed that in the 1980s merit-making was declining, and a significant group did no longer believe in karma—though this was not a majority.[277] Some scholars disagree with these findings, however, saying that Buddhist practices such as merit-making are still very widespread.[271] Similar observations have been made about Cambodia and even about Thai people in the United States.[278][279] As for Buddhist "converts" in the west, for example from the United Kingdom, the interest in merit is less than among Asian Buddhists, but they strongly appreciate the generosity and reverence as exhibited by Asian Buddhists.[280][281]

Average expenses in merit-making per person, in Thailand, 2005.[29]
Region
Baht
/Person/Year
Bangkok Metropolitan Area 1,512
Central 1,032
North 672
Northeast 492
South 516
National average 804

Discussion by scholars

Some scholars have suggested that merit-making may have affected the economies of Buddhist countries in a negative way, because spending savings on the local temple would prevent consumption and investment and therefore stunt economic growth. Other researchers have disagreed, pointing out that spending resources on a Buddhist temple does stimulate economic growth through the investment in goods for the temple.

social ties, which Walters calls "sociokarma".[286]

Scholars have often connected the notion of karma to the determinism in the caste system in India.[287] Just like in the case of karma, some scholars believe that a belief in merit can cause social differences to stay unchanged. This would be the case when the poor, who cannot make much merit, resign to their fate.[288][289] Other scholars point out that merit can be used to improve social status in the present, as in the case of someone ordaining as a monk for a few years.[214] And vice versa, if someone's social status quickly deteriorates, for example, due to quick changes in the bureaucratic structure, these changes might be justified in Buddhist societies because someone's store of merit is believed to have run out.[290] Someone's position in society, even in the cosmos, is always subject to the impermanent workings of merit and demerit. In traditional Buddhist societies, quick changes in position, status, or roles are therefore considered part of life, and this insecurity is a motivator in trying to improve the situation through merit-making.[291][292] Findly points out that in Buddhist ideals of merit-making, the earned value gained by doing good deeds is more important than the assigned value gained by social status at birth.[293]

Phu Mi Bun movements

See also: Faith in Buddhism § Millenarianism

The idea of merit is also at the basis of the Phu Mi Bun movements as has been studied in Thailand and other Buddhist societies. Phu Mi Bun are people who are considered to have much merit from past lives, whose influence morally affects society at large.

French control of Cambodia.[301] Lucien Hanks has shown that beliefs pertaining to Phu Mi Bun have profoundly affected the way Thai people relate to authority.[40] Indologist Arthur Basham, however, believed that in contemporary Thai society the Phu Mi Bun is more of a label, and merit more of a secular term than a deeply-rooted belief.[302]

Tibetan monk releases a crab into the ocean
Merit release is a ritual of releasing animals from captivity, as a way of making merit.[303]

Merit release

Main article: Life release

One merit-making practice that has received more scholarly attention since the 1990s is the practice of "merit release". Merit release is a ritual of releasing animals from captivity, as a way to make merit. Merit release is a practice common in many Buddhist societies, and has since the 2010s made a comeback in some societies.

conservationists and scholars. Studies done in Cambodia, Hong Kong and Taiwan have shown that the practice may not only be fatal for a high percentage of the released animals, but may also affect the survival of threatened species, create a black market for wildlife, as well as pose a threat for public hygiene.[304][309] In Thailand, there are cases where animals are captured for the explicit purpose of being sold to be released—often into unsuitable ecosystems.[310] Some Buddhist organizations have responded to this by adjusting their practices, by working together with conservationist organizations to educate people, and even by pushing for new laws controlling the practice.[311] In 2016, the Society for Conservation Biology (SCB) started discussing possible solutions with religious communities on how the practice could be adapted. According to the SCB, the communities have generally responded positively.[304][312] In the meantime, in some countries, laws have been issued to control the practice. In Singapore, to limit merit release on Vesak celebrations, people were fined.[305]

Despite its critics, merit release continues to grow, and has also developed new forms in western countries. In 2016, it was widely reported that the Canada-based Great Enlightenment Buddhist Institute Society (GEBIS) had released 600 pounds (270 kg) of lobsters in the ocean. The release was planned in agreement with local lobster-men.[313] In the same year, Wendy Cook from Lincoln, United States, bought about 135 rabbits from a farm to raise them under better conditions. The costly release, advertised on Facebook as The Great Rabbit Liberation of 2016, was supported by Buddhist monastics from Singapore and the Tibetan tradition, and was based on the idea of merit-making.[314] In a less successful attempt, two Taiwanese Buddhists released crab and lobsters in the sea at Brighton, United Kingdom, to make merit. They were fined by the authorities for £15,000 for a wildlife offense that could have significant impact on native species.[315]

See also

Notes

  1. the leading disciple Sāriputta is described as teaching the same triad: dāna, sīla, bhāvanā.[55]
  2. Digha Nikāya
    iii.218
  3. Pali: saccakiriya) is a common theme in all Indian religion [84]
  4. ^ There is some discussion as to the best translation of kusala, some preferring 'skilful' or 'intelligent' instead.[93]
  5. ^ However, the term merit-making may also originate from a translation of Pāli terms. In Pāli texts several of such terms were used.[148]
  6. ^ There are also other forms that are practiced, varying from four to eleven parts.[247]
  7. forced labor camps by citing that the labor there yielded merit. At the same time, Aung San Suu Kyi referred to the struggle for democracy as meritorious.[269]
  8. ^ Since the 2000s, studies in China have shown a growing interest among local government officials to promote merit-making activities, believing it to stimulate local economy.[283]

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References

Further reading

External links

Lay Theravada practices for a fortunate rebirth

FAITH (Saddhā) GIVING (Dāna) VIRTUE (
Sīla
)		 MIND (Bhāvanā)
DISCERNMENT
 (Paññā)

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Based on:

Dighajanu Sutta, Velama Sutta, Dhammika Sutta
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